Artículo contenedor para preguntas de Inglés PN
Tema 46: Inglés: gramática y comprensión escrita
Idioma extranjero (inglés): gramática, uso de la lengua y comprensión escrita.
Actualizado a 23 de agosto de 2026. Regístrate para recibir actualizaciones cuando la legislación cambie.
Inglés PN
Inglés PN — Policía Nacional
Tiempos verbales
Tiempos Verbales en Inglés
El sistema verbal del inglés se organiza en torno a tres grandes ejes temporales (presente, pasado y futuro), cada uno con formas simples, continuas (continuous o progressive), perfectas (perfect) y perfectas continuas (perfect continuous). Dominar cuándo se usa cada una es esencial para la oposición.
1. Presente Simple (Present Simple)
Formación
| Persona | Afirmativa | Negativa | Interrogativa |
|---|---|---|---|
| I / you / we / they | work | don't work | Do you work? |
| he / she / it | works | doesn't work | Does she work? |
La 3.ª persona del singular añade -s o -es (verbos terminados en -ch, -sh, -x, -o, -s): watches, goes, mixes.
Usos principales
- Hábitos y rutinas (con adverbios de frecuencia: always, usually, often, sometimes, never):
-
I usually have dinner at six o'clock. (El adverbio va entre el sujeto y el verbo principal.)
-
Mary works hard every day.
-
I don't usually listen to music when I go for a walk.
-
Jimmy is always on time.
- Verdades generales y hechos permanentes:
-
Oak trees grow very slowly.
-
The last movie of the Lord of the Rings lasts more than three hours.
- Estado actual con verbos de estado (stative verbs: have, know, believe, like, love, hate, want, need, seem). Estos verbos no se usan en forma continua:
-
My house has four rooms.
-
She has got two houses in Cuba.
-
I know how to solve that kind of problem. (→ I have never learnt how to solve... en perfect)
-
Currently, they have enough money for the concert.
- Tras conjunciones temporales y condicionales que se refieren al futuro (when, if, as soon as, until, before, after):
- You can see my pictures when you come back tonight. (NO when you will come back)
- Preguntas con did en pasado: la forma del verbo principal vuelve a la base:
-
What did she do last week for her birthday?
-
Did the teacher say anything about the last exams?
-
Does she play volleyball?
Posición del adverbio de frecuencia
El adverbio de frecuencia va antes del verbo principal pero después del verbo auxiliar o copulativo (be):
-
I don't usually listen… (antes del verbo principal)
-
He is always on time. (después de be)
-
She was always right. → My mother is always right. (No se dice has reason; en inglés se dice to be right, no to have reason.)
2. Presente Continuo (Present Continuous / Present Progressive)
Formación
am / is / are + verbo-ing
-
She is working at the moment but she finishes at 6.
-
They always grow flowers but this year they are growing vegetables.
Usos principales
- Acción en desarrollo en el momento de hablar:
- She is working at the moment.
- Tendencia temporal o situación que cambia (contraste con el hábito del present simple):
- They always grow flowers but this year they are growing vegetables.
- Planes futuros acordados (con referencia temporal explícita o implícita):
- I am going to travel to Paris next Monday. (→ ver futuro con going to)
Nota importante: Los verbos de estado (stative verbs) no se usan en continuo. En inglés no se dice it is very wind ni it does wind; el tiempo atmosférico se expresa con el adjetivo windy y el verbo be: it is windy.
3. Pasado Simple (Past Simple)
Formación
-
Verbos regulares: base + -ed (worked, listened, stayed).
-
Verbos irregulares: forma propia de cada verbo (segunda columna de la tabla de irregulares).
| Infinitivo | Pasado simple | Participio pasado |
|---|---|---|
| become | became | become |
| break | broke | broken |
| come | came | come |
| dig | dug | dug |
| do | did | done |
| drink | drank | drunk |
| drive | drove | driven |
| fall | fell | fallen |
| feel | felt | felt |
| forget | forgot | forgotten |
| get | got | got / gotten |
| give | gave | given |
| go | went | gone |
| hear | heard | heard |
| leave | left | left |
| say | said | said |
| take | took | taken |
| wake | woke | woken |
| wear | wore | worn |
| write | wrote | written |
¡Atención! Los verbos irregulares no añaden -ed. Nunca: hearded, gaved, becomed, dugged.
Usos principales
- Acción completada en un momento concreto del pasado (con marcadores: yesterday, last night/week/year, ago, in 1999, when I was young):
-
I gave her the keys yesterday.
-
My father fell and broke his arm on the street. (dos acciones coordinadas en pasado)
-
Bob came home late last night.
-
What time did he get up yesterday?
-
In the past most young boys became farmers.
-
Most of Frankfurt's old buildings were destroyed in the last world war.
- Serie de acciones pasadas (coordinadas con and):
- My grandmother fell and broke her leg. (NO fallen ni broken tras and)
- Negación e interrogación con did + infinitivo:
-
I didn't drink any beer last night. (NO hadn't drunk si es un evento concreto sin referencia anterior)
-
I didn't watch TV yesterday.
-
I didn't answer the phone because I was having a job interview.
Expresiones temporales del Past Simple
| Expresión | Ejemplo |
|---|---|
| ago (hace X tiempo) | My parents got married twenty years ago. |
| yesterday | I heard a strange noise yesterday night. |
| last week / month / year | Last week, I stayed with my sister for a few days. |
| for (duración en pasado cerrado) | I stayed with my sister for a few days. |
| when (con past simple) | When did you become a policewoman? — 5 years ago. |
Diferencia clave: ago va con past simple; since y for (referidos a un periodo que llega al presente) van con present perfect.
4. Pasado Continuo (Past Continuous / Past Progressive)
Formación
was / were + verbo-ing
Usos principales
- Acción en desarrollo en un momento concreto del pasado:
-
Mr Black wasn't working in his study when the murder happened.
-
I was washing my hair when my mother tried to call me.
- Acción de fondo interrumpida por otra (la acción puntual va en past simple):
-
The children were playing basketball when it started to rain.
-
I couldn't answer the phone because I was having a job interview.
-
I dug the grave while the corpse was still warm.
- Pregunta sobre el pasado con lugar:
- Where were Judy and Liz at last month's meeting?
Clave: when introduce la acción puntual (past simple); while introduce la acción en desarrollo (past continuous).
5. Presente Perfecto (Present Perfect)
Formación
have / has + participio pasado
-
I have seen that letter.
-
She has got two houses in Cuba.
Usos principales
- Experiencias pasadas sin tiempo definido (con ever, never, before):
-
Boys, have you ever eaten red ants?
-
I have never learnt how to solve that kind of problem.
-
"Have you seen 'Inglorious Bastards'?" "No, I haven't seen any of Tarantino's movies."
-
It's the third time you've been to France.
- Acción reciente con relevancia en el presente (con just, already, yet):
-
Oh, no! I've lost the project report!
-
I have already finished the repairs.
-
The tractor engine has broken down twice this week.
-
This issue has been brought up by the employees during the meeting.
- Duración desde el pasado hasta el presente (con for y since):
-
Mr. Ramis has worked here for 30 years.
-
I have known Barbara for over twenty years.
-
We have been here for two weeks.
-
You haven't studied French for ten years.
-
I haven't written to my grandma since last year.
-
How long have you lived in Russia?
Regla: for + duración (for 30 years); since + punto de inicio (since 2010, since last year).
- Superlativo + ever (con past perfect si la referencia es pasada):
-
These are the glasses I have always worn.
-
That was the worst soup I 'd ever tasted.
-
That was the easiest situation I had ever been in.
Marcadores del Present Perfect
| Marcador | Posición |
|---|---|
| just | entre have/has y el participio |
| already (afirmativa) | entre have/has y el participio |
| yet (negativa/interrogativa) | al final |
| ever / never | entre have/has y el participio |
| for + duración | al final |
| since + punto de inicio | al final |
| How long...? | al inicio |
Diferencia con el Past Simple: El present perfect se usa cuando NO se especifica un momento concreto o cuando el periodo continúa hasta el presente. El past simple se usa cuando se menciona un momento concreto: Mozart wrote more than 600 pieces (vivió y murió; es pasado completo y cerrado).
6. Pasado Perfecto (Past Perfect)
Formación
had + participio pasado
Usos principales
El past perfect expresa una acción anterior a otra acción pasada (el «pasado del pasado»):
-
The sun had already set when my father got home from work.
-
When I got to the office, I realized that I had forgotten to lock the front door.
-
When Sean arrived, he realized he had forgotten the present.
-
He had closed the gate before the helicopter took off.
-
The employees had never used such machinery before.
-
When I entered the library, I remembered that I had left my books at home.
-
Julie didn't arrive until after I had left.
-
Mary had bought a box of chocolates for my birthday when I saw her at the mall.
-
She was wonderful yesterday. She had never played football better.
-
Nobody knew how much he had drunk.
-
He told me that he had done all the work himself.
-
That was the worst soup I had ever tasted.
-
By the time he gets out of jail, he will have forgotten how to function... (→ futuro perfecto)
Clave: Si se mencionan dos acciones pasadas y una precedió a la otra, la más antigua va en past perfect y la más reciente en past simple.
Negativa del Past Perfect
had not (hadn't) + participio:
- The employees hadn't used / had never used such machinery before. (NO hadn't never — doble negativo incorrecto)
7. Used to — Hábitos y estados del pasado
Formación
used to + infinitivo (interrogativa y negativa con did)
| Tipo | Forma |
|---|---|
| Afirmativa | I used to go to school by bus. |
| Negativa | I didn't use to go... |
| Interrogativa | Did you use to do* all your homework?* |
¡Atención! En interrogativa/negativa se usa use to (sin -d) porque el -d del pasado ya está en did: Did you use to do...? (NO did you used to do).
Uso
Expresa hábitos o estados del pasado que ya no existen:
-
When did you use to do* all your homework when you were a student?*
-
In the past, most young boys used to become farmers. (alternativa al past simple)
Importante: Nowadays, many undergraduates go to class by car. (presente → present simple, NO use to go)
8. Futuro: Will
Formación
will + infinitivo (sin to)
Usos principales
- Decisión espontánea tomada en el momento de hablar:
-
"I forgot my phone." "Don't worry, I 'll lend you mine."
-
Will you lend me $10? I promise I'll give it back tomorrow.
- Predicción sin evidencia actual o con expresiones como I think, probably, with any luck:
-
With any luck, they will have reached their destination before nightfall.
-
I don't believe you. That can't be true! (modal de deducción negativa)
- Promesas, amenazas, ofertas:
- Will you drive your car next Sunday, daddy?
- Futuro programado (no espontáneo) cuando no hay plan previo explícito:
- We will go out at nightfall and we will walk all night. (plan general, predicción)
Forma negativa e interrogativa
-
He won't be here tomorrow.
-
Will she come to the party?
Sustitutos de can y could para tiempos no disponibles
Can y could carecen de futuro, perfecto e infinitivo propios. En todos esos contextos se sustituyen por be able to:
| Contexto | Forma correcta | Incorrecto |
|---|---|---|
| Futuro de can | will be able to | |
| Condicional de can | would be able to | |
| Perfect de can | has/have been able to |
Regla: Can solo existe en presente (can) y pasado (could). Para cualquier otro tiempo verbal se usa la perífrasis be able to.
-
Next year, she will be able to join the police force. (futuro)
-
If he trained harder, he would be able to pass the fitness test. (condicional)
-
After months of practice, she has been able to speak fluently. (perfecto)
9. Futuro: Going to
Formación
am / is / are + going to + infinitivo
Usos principales
- Intención o plan decidido con antelación:
-
Marvin is going to throw a party next week.
-
I am going to travel to Paris next Monday.
-
We are going to have a barbecue tomorrow. It's all planned.
-
Is Nadine going to take part in the race?
- Predicción basada en evidencia visible en el presente:
-
You were right one hour ago. It's going to be rainy today.
-
I think I'm not going to join the army.
Diferencia will / going to:
- Will → decisión espontánea o predicción sin evidencia.
- Going to → plan previo o predicción con evidencia.
10. Futuro Continuo (Future Continuous)
Formación
will be + verbo-ing
Uso
Acción que estará en desarrollo en un momento concreto del futuro:
-
Don't disturb her. She will be having lunch for the next half an hour.
-
He will be living in Madrid next summer.
-
This time next year, we will be celebrating because I will have bought my new flat.
11. Futuro Perfecto (Future Perfect)
Formación
will have + participio pasado
Uso
Acción que se habrá completado antes de un momento futuro determinado:
-
By 11 o'clock I 'll have finished the painting.
-
With any luck, they will have reached their destination before nightfall.
-
By the time he gets out of jail, he will have forgotten how to function in the real world.
-
Next month she will have been working in this company for five years. (→ también Future Perfect Continuous)
12. Futuro Perfecto Continuo (Future Perfect Continuous)
Formación
will have been + verbo-ing
Uso
Expresa la duración de una acción que habrá estado ocurriendo hasta un punto futuro:
-
Next month we will have been dating for two years.
-
Next month she will have been working in this company for five years.
-
You are 30 now; when you retire you will have been working for 50 years.
-
This time next year, we will be celebrating / I will have bought my new flat.
13. Futuro como presente para la voz pasiva
Cuando la acción futura ya está determinada (decisión oficial, sentencia, etc.) se puede usar el presente continuo pasivo o going to pasivo:
- He's been found guilty and is being transferred to a federal prison the day after tomorrow.
14. Voz Pasiva (Passive Voice)
Formación
verbo to be (en el tiempo correspondiente) + participio pasado
| Tiempo activo | Equivalente pasivo |
|---|---|
| Present simple | is/are + past participle |
| Past simple | was/were + past participle |
| Present perfect | has/have been + past participle |
| Future | will be + past participle |
Ejemplos de las preguntas
-
A dozen babies are born in this hospital every day.
-
Most of Frankfurt's old buildings were destroyed in the last world war.
-
This issue has been brought up by the employees during the meeting.
El agente (quien realiza la acción) se introduce con by.
15. Resumen de marcadores temporales clave
| Marcador | Tiempo verbal asociado |
|---|---|
| yesterday, last week, ago, in 1990 | Past Simple |
| when (acción puntual pasada) | Past Simple |
| while, as (acción en curso) | Past Continuous |
| just, already, yet, ever, never, since, for (hasta ahora) | Present Perfect |
| by the time (pasado), before (pasado) | Past Perfect |
| ago | Past Simple (no Present Perfect) |
| for + duración (hasta ahora) | Present Perfect |
| for + duración (pasado cerrado) | Past Simple |
| since + punto de inicio | Present Perfect |
| when (futuro en subordinada) | Present Simple |
| by + momento futuro | Future Perfect |
| this time next year | Future Continuous |
| for X years (duración hasta un punto futuro) | Future Perfect Continuous |
16. Concordancia verbal: sujetos colectivos y plurales especiales
En inglés, algunos sustantivos que parecen singulares o plurales presentan concordancia especial:
-
Sustantivos siempre plurales (wages, clothes, trousers, scissors) → verbo en plural:
-
The wages in this factory are very high.
-
His clothes were all clean and ironed.
-
People es plural (no se dice peoples para referirse a personas en general; peoples = pueblos/culturas):
-
There were so many people in the shopping centre that we had to leave.
-
News es singular en inglés:
-
The news is very exciting. (ver artículo 3 sobre incontables)
-
Wages (salarios) → siempre plural:
-
The wages in other companies are very low.
17. Verbos auxiliares: have got vs. have
En inglés británico se usa frecuentemente have got (posesión, estado):
| Forma | Ejemplo |
|---|---|
| Afirmativa | She has got two houses. / They have got a nice car. / We have got a cat. |
| Negativa | Mrs White hasn't got a dog. |
| Sin got (equivalente) | My house has four rooms. / She has two houses. |
Have got y have (de posesión) son intercambiables en el presente. En pasado solo se usa had: I had a shower this morning.
18. Expresiones idiomáticas frecuentes en las preguntas
| Expresión inglesa | Significado |
|---|---|
| to be right | tener razón (NOT to have reason) |
| to be windy | hacer viento (NOT to do/make wind) |
| to be thirsty | tener sed (NOT to have thirst) |
| to be in a hurry | tener prisa (I am in a hurry) |
| to come from | ser de/proceder de (NOT to come of) |
| out of order | averiado, fuera de servicio |
| to put up with | aguantar, soportar |
| to bring up | sacar a colación (un tema) |
| to break down | averiarse (un motor, máquina) |
19. Esquema global de tiempos verbales
PASADO PRESENTE FUTURO
│ │ │
Past Perfect Past Simple Past Continuous │ Present Simple Present Continuous │ will / going to (had + pp) (base-ed/irr) (was/were +ing) │ (base / -s) (am/is/are + ing) │ Future Continuous
│ Present Perfect │ Future Perfect
│ (have/has + pp) │ Future Perf. Continuous
Artículos: a, an, a piece of y the.
Los Artículos en Inglés: a, an, the y artículo cero (Ø)
El inglés tiene dos tipos de artículo: el artículo indefinido (a / an) y el artículo definido (the). Junto a ellos existe el llamado artículo cero (Ø), es decir, la ausencia de artículo, que también tiene usos regulados. Un error en el uso del artículo es una de las fuentes más frecuentes de fallos en los exámenes.
1. Artículo Indefinido: a y an
1.1. Regla fundamental: sonido inicial
La elección entre a y an depende exclusivamente del sonido (no de la letra) con que empieza la palabra siguiente:
-
Se usa an antes de sonido vocálico (/a/, /e/, /i/, /o/, /u/).
-
Se usa a antes de sonido consonántico (incluida la /j/ de university o la /w/ de one).
| Palabra | Sonido inicial | Artículo |
|---|---|---|
| orange | vocal /ɒ/ | an orange |
| umbrella | vocal /ʌ/ | an umbrella |
| hour | vocal /aʊ/ (la h es muda) | an hour |
| honest | vocal /ɒ/ (la h es muda) | an honest person |
| heir | vocal /eə/ (la h es muda) | an heir |
| easy | vocal /iː/ | an easy problem |
| era | vocal /ɪər/ | an era |
| institution | vocal /ɪ/ | an institution |
| awful | vocal /ɔː/ | an awful truth |
| interesting | vocal /ɪ/ | an interesting book |
| engineer | vocal /ɛ/ | an engineer |
| architect | vocal /ɑː/ | an architect |
| optician | vocal /ɒ/ | an optician |
| accountant | vocal /ə/ | an accountant |
| democrat | vocal /d/ | a democrat |
| horse | consonante /h/ | a horse |
| hotel | consonante /h/ | a hotel |
| university | consonante /j/ (yu) | a university |
| hospital | consonante /h/ | a hospital |
| red | consonante /r/ | a red bike |
| long | consonante /l/ | a long time ago |
| routine | consonante /r/ | a routine |
| plumber | consonante /p/ | a plumber |
| nice | consonante /n/ | a nice car |
| struggle | consonante /s/ | a struggle |
Clave mnemotécnica: Lo que cuenta es cómo suena la primera sílaba, no cómo se escribe. Hour empieza con 'h' pero suena /aʊ/, por tanto: an hour. University empieza con 'u' pero suena /juːnɪ/, por tanto: a university.
1.2. Usos del artículo indefinido
a) Primera mención: objeto no identificado
Se usa cuando se nombra algo por primera vez o cuando el hablante y el oyente no han identificado el referente:
-
He has a red bike.
-
I need to buy an umbrella.
-
There is a French girl at our school.
-
She works in a hospital.
-
I met him while he was riding a horse.
b) Profesiones y cargos (singular)
Con el verbo to be y las profesiones, se usa artículo indefinido en singular:
-
Her father is an architect.
-
She is a police officer, and he is a shop assistant.
-
Jane is a doctor. (pero sus padres, en plural: Her parents were doctors → sin artículo)
-
Mary is a nurse.
-
Jaime is a legal consultant for the government.
-
Peggy's husband is a plumber, and her children are waiters. (plural → Ø)
-
Tom and Christine are opticians; Paul is an accountant.
c) Clasificación y descripción genérica
-
The plane is a fast means of transport.
-
The Council is virtually unknown as an institution.
-
I am a democrat.
-
Everything is a struggle with my son.
d) Expresiones de cantidad y tiempo
-
We will spend a month in London.
-
That was a long time ago.
-
I have a lamp.
-
A day on the beach sounds perfect.
-
This situation has been a real nightmare.
e) What + a/an (exclamaciones)
-
What an interesting book! (sonido vocal /ɪ/)
-
What a nice car! (sonido consonante /n/)
f) Expresiones fijas
-
a piece of... (ver sección 4)
-
a pair of... → I always have a pair of glasses in my pocket.
-
another (= an + other) → Please, let's have another week off!
2. Artículo Definido: the
El artículo the se pronuncia /ðə/ ante consonante y /ðɪ/ ante vocal. Se usa con sustantivos tanto singulares como plurales.
2.1. Usos principales
a) Referente ya mencionado o conocido por el contexto
Cuando el hablante y el oyente ya saben a qué objeto se refieren:
-
You have been watching cartoons for three hours. Please switch the TV off.
-
Could you please close the door?
-
Be careful with the stairs.
-
I don't know where the soap is.
-
The soap is near the bath.
-
The garbage is near the kitchen.
-
The flowers are near the window.
-
What happened to the wine I bought yesterday?
-
The door is open. / The window is broken.
-
Did Julia get the job she applied for?
-
What time is the party on Saturday?
b) Objeto único o superlativo
Cuando solo hay uno o es el mejor/peor de su clase:
-
What is the name of the hotel?
-
I think studying is the best thing you can do.
-
Sara is the best student in our class.
-
What is the fastest animal in the world?
-
I don't like the food they serve in the school cafeteria.
-
Did you answer the fifth question? (número ordinal → referencia única)
-
Captain Planet was made to protect the environment we live in.
c) Instituciones y conceptos únicos
-
My cousin is in the army.
-
Once in a while I listen to the radio, but normally I prefer to read the newspaper.
-
New York is in the United States.
-
Many police officers had to go to the neighbourhood because of the riot.
El artículo con nombres propios:
Se usa the con: nombres de países en plural (the United States, the Netherlands), cadenas montañosas (the Alps), océanos (the Pacific), ríos (the Thames), grupos de islas (the Canary Islands).
NO se usa the con: ciudades (London), países singulares (Spain, France), continentes (Europe), calles.
d) The con adjetivos sustantivados (grupos de personas)
-
The homeless were removed from the streets. (= las personas sin hogar)
-
The English are strange people. (= los ingleses como pueblo)
e) The con superlativos
-
Sara is the best student in our class.
-
What is the fastest animal in the world?
f) The con sustantivos referidos específicamente
-
The english books you are reading are fantastic. (esos libros concretos)
-
I broke the plate that you gave me. (esa bandeja específica que me diste)
-
Don't lie to him! Tell him the truth!
-
I have the house keys.
3. Artículo Cero (Ø): sin artículo
El inglés usa el artículo cero (ningún artículo) en los siguientes casos:
3.1. Sustantivos en plural o incontables con sentido genérico
Cuando se habla de una categoría entera, sin especificar:
-
Vegetables are good for you. (las verduras en general)
-
It is a universal truth that children imitate adults. (en general)
-
I don't think they are actors; I would say they are musicians. (profesión en plural)
-
James told me that Mary and Susan work as waitresses, but they are also students.
-
Tom and Christine are opticians.
3.2. Profesiones en plural
En plural, las profesiones no llevan artículo:
-
Jane is a doctor. Her parents were Ø doctors.
-
Peggy's husband is a plumber, and her children are Ø waiters.
3.3. Instituciones cuando se refieren a su función principal
- My uncle is in Ø prison. (es preso, está encarcelado → función primaria)
vs. The prison is next to the court. (edificio concreto → the)
3.4. Sustantivos incontables (actividades, materias abstractas)
-
Mrs. Johnson gave us a lot of Ø homework.
-
I never watch Ø television when I'm having dinner. (actividad en general)
-
I forgot my pen. Can I borrow one from you? (sin artículo antes de one cuando sustituye al sustantivo)
4. A piece of, some y cuantificadores con incontables
Algunos sustantivos son incontables y no admiten artículo indefinido ni plural. Para cuantificarlos se usa a piece of u otros cuantificadores.
4.1. Sustantivos incontables frecuentes en las preguntas
| Sustantivo | Correcto | Incorrecto |
|---|---|---|
| advice | some advice / a piece of advice | |
| news | good news / a piece of news / a good piece of news | |
| information | some information | |
| furniture | some furniture / a piece of furniture | |
| luggage | a piece of luggage | |
| homework | a lot of homework | |
| toast | a piece of toast / two pieces of toast | |
| coffee | some coffee / a cup of coffee | — |
| milk | some milk / a glass of milk | |
| money | some money / little money | |
| bread | some bread / a piece of bread | |
| wall (material) | a piece of wall | — |
4.2. Usos concretos de las preguntas
-
Let me give you some advice: get a good lawyer.
-
Thank you for a very useful piece of advice.
-
Your colleagues will probably need some advice from you.
-
I've just heard a good piece of news on the radio.
-
I've just heard an interesting piece of advice from my uncle.
-
He only had two pieces of toast and a cup of orange juice for breakfast.
-
There is a piece of wall on the floor.
-
There was a piece of cake on his plate.
-
We only have one piece of luggage, the red Samsonite.
-
Those are the only pieces of furniture I really like.
-
I always have a pair of glasses in my pocket.
4.3. Some y any
| Cuantificador | Uso | Ejemplo |
|---|---|---|
| some | afirmativas, ofrecimientos | There are some boys in our school. |
| any | negativas, preguntas | Have you got any free time? |
| some | peticiones educadas | Can I have some biscuits? |
-
I have just made some coffee. Can I get you a cup?
-
There are some potatoes for dinner.
-
We have got some Spanish students in our class.
-
Some of these democracies are very young and fragile.
-
And still some say that Syria cannot change.
-
There are some balls, aren't there?
5. Casos especiales y errores frecuentes
5.1. Artículo indefinido + adjetivo
El artículo va antes del adjetivo, no después:
-
It's a nice house. (NOT
it's nice a house) -
An easy problem. (sonido /iː/ → an)
-
A beautiful house. (sonido /b/ → a)
-
That's an awful truth. (sonido /ɔː/ → an)
5.2. Doble artículo en una oración
Cada sustantivo lleva su propio artículo:
-
I met him while he was riding a horse. He seemed an honest person.
-
She'll be here in an hour; it's going to be a lovely afternoon.
-
A hotel or a university, both are places where people meet each other. (hotel = /h/ consonántica → a; university = /j/ consonántica → a)
-
Give me a hammer and an hour and I guarantee I can fix it.
-
An eye for an eye, a tooth for a tooth.
-
This is a hole I did in just an hour.
5.3. The con nombres que ya conocemos
-
What is the name of the hotel? (preguntamos por algo conocido: ese hotel)
-
The English books you are reading are fantastic. (esos libros específicos)
-
I broke the plate that you gave me. (esa bandeja específica)
5.4. Artículo con radio, television, prison, hospital, army
| Sustantivo | Con the (edificio/cosa) | Sin artículo (función/institución) |
|---|---|---|
| radio | I turned off the radio. | I listen to the radio. (actividad habitual → también lleva the) |
| television / TV | switch the TV off | I never watch Ø television (actividad general) |
| prison | The prison is near the court. | My uncle is in Ø prison. (es prisionero) |
| hospital | The hospital is far. | She works in a hospital. (profesionalmente) |
| army | — | My cousin is in the army. |
En el caso de army, the es obligatorio.
5.5. The + superlativo siempre
-
Sara is the best student.
-
I think studying is the best thing.
-
What is the fastest animal in the world?
5.6. Profesión con be: singular vs. plural
| Número | Artículo | Ejemplo |
|---|---|---|
| Singular | a / an | Jane is a doctor. |
| Plural | Ø | Her parents were Ø doctors. |
6. Tabla resumen de uso de artículos
| Situación | Artículo |
|---|---|
| Primera mención, no identificado | a / an |
| Ya mencionado o conocido | the |
| Único en su categoría | the |
| Superlativo | the |
| Con número ordinal | the |
| Generalización (plural o incontable) | Ø |
| Profesión en singular | a / an |
| Profesión en plural | Ø |
| Institución (función primaria) | Ø |
| Institución (ejército) | the |
| Incontable cuantificado | a piece of / some / a cup of... |
| Exclamación What + adj + noun! | a / an |
| Nombres de países en plural | the |
| Nombres de países en singular | Ø |
| Medios de comunicación (habitual) | the |
7. Errores típicos que aparecen en las preguntas
| Forma incorrecta | Forma correcta | Explicación |
|---|---|---|
| an actor / a musicians | actors / musicians (plural, sin art.) | Plural sin artículo |
| a nice a house | a nice house | Un solo artículo por SN |
| some advice / a piece advice | some advice / a piece of advice | of es obligatorio |
| many advices | much advice / some advice | advice es incontable |
| an interesting piece on advice | an interesting piece of advice | Preposición of |
| a good piece (de noticias) | a good piece of news | of + sustantivo |
| a lot piece of | a lot of / a piece of | No se mezclan |
| toasts (rebanadas) | pieces of toast / two pieces of toast | toast incontable |
| luggages | pieces of luggage / a piece of luggage | luggage incontable |
| furnitures | furniture / some furniture | furniture incontable |
| homeworks | homework / a lot of homework | homework incontable |
Palabras singulares, plurales, contables e incontables.
Singular, Plural, Contables e Incontables en Inglés
1. Sustantivos Contables e Incontables
1.1. Sustantivos contables (Countable nouns)
Son aquellos que se pueden contar: admiten singular y plural, y pueden ir precedidos de a/an, números o cuantificadores como many, few, a few.
-
a book → two books
-
a cat → five cats
-
an apple → three apples
1.2. Sustantivos incontables (Uncountable nouns)
No se pueden contar de forma individual. No tienen forma plural (no se añade -s) y no van con a/an ni con números directamente. Para cuantificarlos se usan expresiones de medida.
Sustantivos incontables más importantes en las preguntas
| Sustantivo | Uso correcto | Uso incorrecto |
|---|---|---|
| advice (consejo) | some advice, a piece of advice | |
| news (noticias) | good news, a piece of news | |
| information (información) | some information | |
| furniture (muebles) | some furniture, a piece of furniture | |
| luggage (equipaje) | a piece of luggage | |
| homework (deberes) | a lot of homework | |
| money (dinero) | little money, some money | |
| milk (leche) | some milk, a glass of milk | |
| bread (pan) | some bread, a piece of bread | |
| toast (tostada) | a piece of toast, two pieces of toast | |
| candy (caramelos, como sustancia) | too much candy | (puede usarse en pl. candies = tipos o unidades) |
Concordancia verbal: los incontables llevan verbo en singular
-
Bad news doesn't always mean disaster.
-
The news that I listened to today is very exciting.
-
Good news doesn't make people happy.
Cuantificadores con incontables
| Cuantificador | Uso | Ejemplo |
|---|---|---|
| some | afirmativas | Could you give me some advice about universities? |
| much | negativas e interrogativas | How much money do you have? |
| a little | pequeña cantidad | He had a little money. |
| little | muy poca cantidad (casi nada) | We have little time to do a lot of things. |
| a lot of | gran cantidad | I love having a lot of homework. |
| a piece of | una unidad de algo incontable | a piece of advice / toast / furniture / news |
| a glass of | un vaso de | three glasses of milk |
| a cup of | una taza de | a cup of coffee |
little vs. a little / few vs. a few
| Cuantificador | Con | Significado |
|---|---|---|
| little | incontables | muy poco/a (cantidad insuficiente) |
| a little | incontables | un poco (cantidad pequeña pero suficiente) |
| few | contables (pl.) | muy pocos/as |
| a few | contables (pl.) | unos pocos |
-
We have little time to do a lot of things. (time es incontable; things es contable)
-
They had little money to buy many presents. (money incontable → little; presents contable → many)
Error frecuente: few money o many money son incorrectos. Money es incontable → little money / much money / a lot of money.
2. Formación del Plural Regular
La regla general es añadir -s al sustantivo singular.
2.1. Reglas generales
| Terminación singular | Regla de plural | Ejemplo |
|---|---|---|
| consonante + cualquier vocal + consonante | + -s | book → books, cat → cats, window → windows |
| vocal + consonante simple | + -s | minute → minutes, litre → litres |
| terminación muda -e | + -s | bridge → bridges, wave → waves |
| -s, -sh, -ch, -x, -z | + -es | bus → buses, crash → crashes, church → churches, box → boxes, watch → watches, axe → axes |
| -o (con algunas excepciones) | + -es | tomato → tomatoes, potato → potatoes, hero → heroes, superhero → superheroes |
| -o (palabras extranjeras o abreviadas) | + -s | photo → photos, radio → radios, zoo → zoos, tattoo → tattoos, taboo → taboos |
| consonante + -y | -y → -ies | city → cities, lady → ladies, party → parties, pharmacy → pharmacies, story → stories, body → bodies, butterfly → butterflies, mystery → mysteries |
| vocal + -y | + -s | monkey → monkeys, toy → toys, key → keys |
| -f / -fe | -f/-fe → -ves | wolf → wolves, knife → knives, leaf → leaves, half → halves, scarf → scarves, shelf → shelves, self → selves, wife → wives, life → lives |
| Excepciones a -f→-ves | + -s | roof → roofs, safe → safes, chief → chiefs, belief → beliefs |
| -ff | + -s | cliff → cliffs, sheriff → sheriffs, staff → staffs |
2.2. Tabla de ejemplos de las preguntas
| Singular | Plural correcto | Plural incorrecto |
|---|---|---|
| box | boxes | |
| bus | buses | |
| church | churches | |
| crash | crashes | |
| axe | axes | |
| watch | watches | |
| city | cities | |
| lady | ladies | |
| party | parties | |
| body | bodies | |
| story | stories | |
| pharmacy | pharmacies | |
| butterfly | butterflies | |
| baby | babies | |
| monkey | monkeys | |
| toy | toys | |
| tomato | tomatoes | |
| potato | potatoes | |
| hero | heroes | |
| superhero | superheroes | |
| zoo | zoos | |
| tattoo | tattoos | |
| wolf | wolves | |
| knife | knives | |
| half | halves | |
| scarf | scarves | |
| shelf | shelves | |
| leaf | leaves | — |
| roof | roofs | |
| safe | safes | |
| sheriff | sheriffs | |
| flower | flowers | |
| glove | gloves | |
| window | windows | |
| kitten | kittens | |
| document | documents | |
| revolt | revolts | |
| topic | topics | |
| minute | minutes | |
| litre | litres | |
| wardrobe | wardrobes | |
| screwdriver | screwdrivers | |
| screw | screws | |
| bridge | bridges | |
| wave | waves | |
| choice | choices | |
| class | classes | |
| street | streets | |
| paper | papers | |
| sofa | sofas | |
| mystery | mysteries | (no confundir con mysterious: adjetivo) |
3. Plurales Irregulares
Estos plurales no siguen ninguna de las reglas anteriores. Hay que aprenderlos de memoria.
3.1. Cambio de vocal interna (vowel mutation)
| Singular | Plural | Español |
|---|---|---|
| man | men | hombre / hombres |
| woman | women | mujer / mujeres |
| foot | feet | pie / pies |
| tooth | teeth | diente / dientes |
| mouse | mice | ratón / ratones |
| goose | geese | ganso / gansos |
| louse | lice | piojo / piojos |
Nota: man → men / woman → women. Son incorrectos:
mans, mens, womens, womans.
3.2. Compuestos con man/woman
| Singular | Plural | Ejemplo en contexto |
|---|---|---|
| policeman | policemen | — |
| policewoman | policewomen | Those policewomen were very good at their job. |
| gentleman | gentlemen | — |
3.3. Formas completamente distintas
| Singular | Plural | Español |
|---|---|---|
| child | children | niño / niños |
| person | people (informal/coloquial) | persona / personas |
| ox | oxen | buey / bueyes |
Importante: people es el plural habitual de person en contexto ordinario:
- There were a lot of people in the pub. (NO
personsen lenguaje corriente)
- There are four people at the door.
- There were so many people in the shopping centre.
Persons existe pero se usa en contextos legales o formales muy específicos. Peoples significa «pueblos» (culturas, naciones), no personas.
3.4. Invariables: mismo singular y plural (zero plural)
Algunos sustantivos tienen la misma forma en singular y plural:
| Palabra | Singular | Plural | Ejemplo |
|---|---|---|---|
| sheep | a sheep | many sheep | The shepherd lost many sheep during the floods. |
| fish | a fish | many fish | There are many fish in this pond. |
| aircraft | an aircraft | many aircraft | There weren't many aircraft in the airport. |
| deer | a deer | many deer | — |
| means | a means | many means | The plane is the safest means of transport. |
| series | a series | many series | — |
| species | a species | many species | — |
| pence | — | fifty pence | She paid 50 pence for the sweets. |
¡Atención! Nunca
sheeps, fishs, aircrafts.
- A flock of sheep occupied the whole road. (flock = rebaño)
- A lot of sheep were lying on the grass. (plural → were)
- The plane is perhaps the safest means of transport. (NOT
mean, waysen este contexto)
3.5. Palabras de origen griego o latino
Algunas palabras conservan su plural latino:
| Singular | Plural | Ejemplo |
|---|---|---|
| medium | media | They're talking about you in all the media. |
| datum | data | — |
| criterion | criteria | — |
Social media es invariable en inglés moderno:
- Nowadays, companies need to be on social media. (NOT
social medias / mediums / medies)
4. Plurales de Palabras Compuestas
En las palabras compuestas, el plural se forma en el elemento principal (normalmente el primero si es un sustantivo):
| Singular | Plural | Ejemplo |
|---|---|---|
| toothbrush | toothbrushes | I bought three toothbrushes yesterday. |
| toothbrush | toothbrushes | NOT |
La t de tooth no cambia a teeth en compuestos: es toothbrush → toothbrushes, no
teethbrushes.
5. Colectivos y Sustantivos de Grupo
5.1. Clothes (ropa)
Clothes es siempre plural y no tiene singular con ese significado:
-
She only likes wearing designer clothes.
-
NOT
a clothe, a cloth(con ese significado; cloth = tela, diferente)
5.2. Glasses (gafas)
Glasses se usa siempre en plural para las gafas:
-
I always have a pair of glasses in my pocket.
-
Para cuantificarlos: a pair of glasses.
5.3. Gloves (guantes)
- Take your gloves! (NOT
glofs)
5.4. Colectivos de animales
| Colectivo | Animal | Ejemplo |
|---|---|---|
| a flock of | sheep, birds | A flock of sheep occupied the whole road. |
| a herd of | cattle, cows | a herd of cattle |
| a pack of | wolves | a pack of wolves |
5.5. Calf → calves
- How many calves can a cow have in its life? (NOT
calfes, calfs)
6. Concordancia: Singular o Plural del Verbo
En inglés la concordancia entre sujeto y verbo es estricta.
6.1. Sujeto plural → verbo plural
-
There are four people at the door.
-
Those policewomen were very good at their job.
-
Where do these children live?
-
The geese are breeding.
-
Those people are waiting for you.
-
Were there many glasses on the table? No, there weren't any. (NOT
wasn't)
6.2. Sujeto incontable o singular → verbo singular
-
The news is very exciting.
-
Bad news doesn't always mean disaster.
-
Bad news doesn't make people happy.
6.3. There is / There are
-
There is a little time left. (incontable o singular)
-
There are too many people who cannot pay the mortgage. (plural contable)
-
Believe me, there are people who don't eat pizza.
6.4. Sustantivos que terminan en -s pero son singulares
Algunos sustantivos parecen plurales pero son singulares en inglés:
| Sustantivo | Concordancia | Ejemplo |
|---|---|---|
| news | singular | The news is exciting. |
| mathematics | singular | Mathematics is difficult. |
| physics | singular | Physics is important. |
| means | singular o plural | This means of transport is safe. |
| media (colectivo) | singular o plural | The media is / are reporting… |
7. Posesivo con sustantivos en plural: el apóstrofo
La pregunta sobre ladies' ilustra la regla del posesivo sajón:
| Tipo | Regla | Ejemplo |
|---|---|---|
| Singular | sustantivo + 's | the lady's choice |
| Plural regular (termina en -s) | sustantivo + ' | the ladies' choice |
| Plural irregular (no termina en -s) | sustantivo + 's | the children's toys, the men's room |
- Do you remember the "this is the ladies' choice" slogan? (NOT
ladys', ladyes')
8. Cuantificadores: much, many, a lot of, too much, too many
| Cuantificador | Con | Contexto | Ejemplo |
|---|---|---|---|
| many | contables pl. | afirmativa, negativa, interrogativa | How many classes do you take? |
| much | incontables | negativa, interrogativa (afirmativa formal) | How much money? |
| a lot of / lots of | ambos | afirmativa | a lot of people, a lot of homework |
| too many | contables pl. | exceso | There are too many people who cannot pay. |
| too much | incontables | exceso | Too much candy is bad for your teeth. |
| a few | contables pl. | cantidad pequeña positiva | a few friends |
| few | contables pl. | cantidad insuficiente | few choices |
| a little | incontables | cantidad pequeña positiva | a little money |
| little | incontables | cantidad insuficiente | little time |
| millions of | contables pl. | cifra elevada | There were millions of insects. (NOT |
Importante: millions of siempre lleva of cuando va seguido del sustantivo. There were millions of insects plaguing the fields.
9. Tabla Maestra de Plurales Irregulares
| Singular | Plural | Notas |
|---|---|---|
| man | men | cambio vocal |
| woman | women | cambio vocal |
| child | children | irregular |
| foot | feet | cambio vocal |
| tooth | teeth | cambio vocal |
| mouse | mice | cambio vocal |
| goose | geese | cambio vocal |
| person | people | irregular (habitual) |
| sheep | sheep | invariable |
| fish | fish | invariable (en contexto general) |
| aircraft | aircraft | invariable |
| deer | deer | invariable |
| means | means | invariable |
| pence | pence | invariable (moneda) |
| medium | media | latinismo |
| ox | oxen | arcaico |
| calf | calves | -f → -ves |
| half | halves | -f → -ves |
| knife | knives | -fe → -ves |
| wolf | wolves | -f → -ves |
| shelf | shelves | -f → -ves |
| scarf | scarves | -f → -ves |
| leaf | leaves | -f → -ves |
| safe | safes | excepción: -fe → -s |
| roof | roofs | excepción: -f → -s |
| sheriff | sheriffs | -ff siempre -s |
| tomato | tomatoes | -o → -oes |
| potato | potatoes | -o → -oes |
| hero | heroes | -o → -oes |
| zoo | zoos | -oo → -s |
| tattoo | tattoos | -oo → -s |
| policewoman | policewomen | compuesto |
| toothbrush | toothbrushes | compuesto |
Estructura there is / there are (verbo haber).
Estructura there is / there are: el verbo «haber» en inglés
En inglés, la existencia de algo se expresa con la construcción there + be, equivalente al verbo «haber» en español (no al verbo «tener»). El verbo be concuerda en número con el sustantivo que le sigue, no con there.
1. Concordancia: there is vs. there are
| Sustantivo siguiente | Forma de be | Ejemplo |
|---|---|---|
| Singular o incontable | there is (there's) | There is a dog in the garden. |
| Plural | there are (there're) | There are two dogs in the garden. |
Regla práctica: si lo que «hay» es uno (o incontable), usa is; si son varios, usa are.
-
There is a calendar on the wall. (un objeto singular)
-
There are lots of books on the shelf. (plural)
-
There is some milk in the jug. (sustantivo incontable → is)
-
There is no tea left. (incontable → is)
Error frecuente en el examen: confundir there (adverbio existencial) con their (posesivo) o con they're (they are). Solo there is / there are expresa existencia.
2. Formas negativas
La negación se forma añadiendo not al verbo auxiliar:
| Afirmativa | Negativa completa | Negativa contraída |
|---|---|---|
| There is | There is not | There isn't |
| There are | There are not | There aren't |
Negación con no (sin any)
Una alternativa muy natural es usar there is/are + no + sustantivo:
-
There is no tea left. I'm sorry. (≈ There isn't any tea left.)
-
There is no danger. (≈ There isn't any danger.)
Tanto there isn't any como there is no son correctas; ambas aparecen en los exámenes.
3. Preguntas (interrogativas)
Para formar preguntas se invierte el orden: el auxiliar se coloca antes de there.
| Tiempo | Pregunta | Respuesta corta |
|---|---|---|
| Presente | Is there a wardrobe in your bedroom? | Yes, there is. / No, there isn't. |
| Presente plural | Are there any books on the desk? | Yes, there are. / No, there aren't. |
| Pasado sing. | Was there a party? | Yes, there was. / No, there wasn't. |
| Pasado plur. | Were there many people? | Yes, there were. / No, there weren't. |
| Pres. perfecto | Has there been an agreement? | Yes, there has. / No, there hasn't. |
| Pres. perf. pl. | Have there been changes? | Yes, there have. / No, there haven't. |
| Futuro | Will there be better weather? | Yes, there will. / No, there won't. |
Ejemplos del examen:
-
Will there be better weather tomorrow? ✓ (el auxiliar will va antes de there)
-
Were there any phone messages yesterday? ✓
-
Has there ever been an Australian Pope? ✓ (ever se coloca entre has/have y there)
-
Is there anybody interested in applying for this job? ✓ (anybody en preguntas, no somebody)
Preguntas con What y How many / How much
-
What was there in the garage? → el auxiliar (was) concuerda con el sujeto real singular implícito.
-
How many eggs are there in the fridge? (many para contables en plural)
-
Is there much homework left? (much para incontables en singular)
Error habitual: How much days es incorrecto; days es contable → How many days.
4. Tiempos verbales con there be
La estructura funciona en todos los tiempos. El verbo be adopta la forma correspondiente al tiempo:
4.1 Presente simple
- There is a fly in my soup. / There are millions of people who speak English.
4.2 Pasado simple
-
There was a question in the exam that I couldn't answer.
-
There were many problems during the festival.
-
Ten years ago, there were more shops.
4.3 Presente perfecto (have/has + been)
-
There has been a change in the schedule. (singular / incontable)
-
There have been many storms this week. (plural)
-
There haven't been many football matches on TV lately.
-
Since then, there has been no information about their fate.
Regla de concordancia en perfecto: has been → singular/incontable; have been → plural.
4.4 Futuro simple (will be)
-
There will be a reception after the wedding.
-
Experts say there will be a vaccine in the next months.
Error frecuente: there will being, there will been, there will can be → TODOS incorrectos. Tras will siempre va el infinitivo sin to: will be.
4.5 Futuro con going to
-
There are going to be a lot happier days like this. (sujeto plural → are going to)
-
Si el sujeto fuera singular: There is going to be a problem.
4.6 Verbos modales + be
Tras un modal (may, might, could, should, must, can) siempre sigue el infinitivo be (nunca been, being, to be):
| Correcto | Incorrecto |
|---|---|
| There may be snakes. | |
| There might be consequences. | |
| Could there be any survivors? | |
| There will be consequences. |
4.7 Pasado perfecto (had been)
Menos frecuente en el examen, pero posible en oraciones subordinadas:
- Would you tell me if there has been any problem? (oración reportada en presente)
5. Some y any con there is / there are
| Contexto | Cuantificador | Ejemplo |
|---|---|---|
| Afirmativa | some | There are some children in the yard. |
| Negativa | any | There aren't any shops near our school. |
| Pregunta neutra | any | Are there any new restaurants? |
| Pregunta con ofrecimiento/expectativa positiva | some | Is there some milk? (esperando que sí) |
| Frase negativa con no | (sin cuantificador) | There is no mirror in our hall. |
Atención: anybody / anyone → singular (Is there anybody interested?); a lot of people → con are there en plural (Are there a lot of people?).
6. Much vs. many con there is / there are
-
Much (incontable, singular): There isn't much chaos. / Is there much homework left?
-
Many (contable, plural): There weren't many questions. / How many days are left?
-
A lot of (ambos): There are a lot of floors. / There has been a lot of traffic.
Error del examen: There aren't so much animals → incorrecto (animals es contable plural → There aren't so many animals).
7. Oraciones con resultado: so ... that
Patrón frecuente en el examen:
- There have been so many problems that I had to quit.
La conjunción que introduce la consecuencia es siempre that (nunca what, who, ni which en esta construcción).
8. There be vs. otras estructuras
| Uso | Correcto | Incorrecto |
|---|---|---|
| Existencia | There is a bus at 7:30. | |
| Posesión / identidad | He has a big dog. | |
| Sujeto definido y conocido | The bus arrives at 7:30. |
There is/are introduce elementos nuevos o indefinidos en el discurso; no se usa con sujetos ya identificados.
9. Concordancia especial: sujeto compuesto o con «what»
Cuando se pregunta por varias cosas a la vez:
- What was there in the garage? There were many things. → La pregunta puede usar singular si el hablante desconoce la cantidad; la respuesta concuerda con lo hallado.
Cuando el sujeto es compuesto y el primero es singular:
- There are some pencils, a book and a notepad on my desk. → el conjunto es plural → are.
10. Resumen esquemático
There + be (concordado) + sujeto real + complemento
Singular / incontable → there IS
Plural → there ARE
Pasado sing. → there WAS
Pasado plur. → there WERE
Pres. perf. sing. → there HAS BEEN
Pres. perf. plur. → there HAVE BEEN
Futuro → there WILL BE
Modal → there [modal] BE
Going to sing. → there IS GOING TO BE
Going to plur. → there ARE GOING TO BE
Negación: añadir not al auxiliar (isn't / aren't / wasn't / weren't / hasn't been / haven't been / won't be).
Pregunta: invertir auxiliar y there (Is there? / Are there? / Was there? / Were there? / Has there been? / Have there been? / Will there be?).
Comparativos y superlativos.
Comparativos y superlativos en inglés
En inglés existen tres grados para describir cualidades: el positivo (igual intensidad), el comparativo (mayor, menor o igual) y el superlativo (grado máximo dentro de un grupo).
1. Formación del comparativo de superioridad
La regla de formación depende del número de sílabas del adjetivo o adverbio.
1.1 Adjetivos y adverbios cortos (1 sílaba, y algunos de 2)
Se añade el sufijo -er al adjetivo + than tras la comparación.
| Adjetivo base | Comparativo | Ejemplo |
|---|---|---|
| old | older | She is two years older than me. |
| big | bigger (doble consonante) | London is bigger than Paris. |
| fast | faster | Could you please walk faster? |
| safe | safer | Planes are safer than cars. |
| warm | warmer | The weather in Africa is warmer than in Europe. |
| long | longer | My mother's dress is longer than my aunt's. |
| loud | louder | Actions speak louder than words. |
| cheap | cheaper | Nobody said this car was cheaper than the one you bought. |
| tall | taller | Nick is taller than Jeremy. |
| nice | nicer | Today is nicer than yesterday. |
| smart | smarter | The pupil became as smart as his teacher. |
| young | younger | We are not getting any younger. |
Reglas ortográficas del sufijo -er:
-
Adjetivos acabados en -e: solo se añade -r → nice → nicer.
-
Adjetivos acabados en consonante-vocal-consonante (CVC): se duplica la consonante final → big → bigger, fat → fatter, hot → hotter, slim → slimmer.
-
Adjetivos acabados en -y (precedida de consonante): la -y cambia a -i → sunny → sunnier, funny → funnier, heavy → heavier, easy → easier, healthy → healthier.
1.2 Adjetivos largos (2+ sílabas, con excepciones)
Se añade more delante del adjetivo + than.
| Adjetivo base | Comparativo | Ejemplo |
|---|---|---|
| beautiful | more beautiful than | This flower is more beautiful than that one. |
| comfortable | more comfortable | This chair is more comfortable. |
| intelligent | more intelligent than | Susan is the most intelligent girl in her class. |
| reckless | more reckless | — |
| flavourful | more flavourful than | This apple is more flavourful than the other one. |
| talkative | more talkative | — |
| difficult | more difficult than | This test is more difficult than the last one. |
| expensive | more expensive than | A C.D. player is more expensive than a T.V. |
Error típico del examen: nunca se usan more y -er simultáneamente:
more bigger,more faster,more warmerson incorrectos.
1.3 Adjetivos de 2 sílabas: casos mixtos
Algunos adjetivos de dos sílabas aceptan las dos formas; los exámenes de la PN prefieren la forma con -er:
-
clever → cleverer (o more clever)
-
narrow → narrower
-
quiet → quieter
-
simple → simpler
Adjetivos en -y siempre toman -ier (nunca more + -y):
-
sunny → sunnier ✓ /
more sunny✗ -
funny → funnier ✓
-
easy → easier ✓
-
happy → happier ✓
-
heavy → heavier ✓
1.4 Adverbios
-
Adverbios cortos (terminados en consonante): -er + than → fast → faster, hard → harder.
-
Adverbios largos (terminados en -ly): more + adverbio + than → quickly → more quickly than, recklessly → more recklessly than.
2. Formación del superlativo
El superlativo expresa el grado máximo dentro de un grupo y siempre va precedido del artículo the.
2.1 Adjetivos cortos: the + adjetivo + -est
| Adjetivo | Superlativo | Ejemplo |
|---|---|---|
| old | the oldest | Sally is the oldest person in the class. |
| big | the biggest | London is bigger than Paris, but Tokyo is the biggest. |
| tall | the tallest | Pedro is the tallest. |
| fast | the fastest | Usain Bolt was the fastest man in the world. |
| hot | the hottest | The hottest desert of all is the Sahara. |
| smart | the smartest | The smartest student will get the prize. |
| high | the highest | What is the highest building in the town? |
| deep | the deepest | I don't know which is the deepest swimming pool. |
| cheap | the cheapest | Wood always proved to be the cheapest material. |
| hard | the hardest | Max studied the hardest of all the students. |
| slim | the slimmest | — |
Reglas ortográficas: idénticas a las del comparativo, sustituyendo -er por -est.
2.2 Adjetivos largos: the most + adjetivo
| Adjetivo | Superlativo | Ejemplo |
|---|---|---|
| intelligent | the most intelligent | Susan is the most intelligent girl in her class. |
| beautiful | the most beautiful | London has one of the most beautiful buildings in the UK. |
| exciting | the most exciting | This is the most exciting story I have ever heard in my life! |
| talkative | the most talkative | Who is the most talkative person in your family? |
| comfortable | the most comfortable | — |
| expensive | the most expensive | A camcorder is the most expensive. |
2.3 Adjetivos en -y: the + adjetivo(-y → -iest)
-
funny → the funniest → She's the funniest person in the class.
-
funny → the funniest → That song was the funniest I had ever heard.
-
lucky → the luckiest → Henry is the luckiest person in the world.
-
rich → the richest → Who is the richest woman on earth?
Error frecuente:
the funnyest,the luckyest,the luckest,the luckiliest→ incorrectos.
2.4 Superlativo de adverbios
-
He swam as fast as he could. / Usain Bolt ran faster than anyone.
-
Of all the girls, Mary speaks the best.
-
Max studied the hardest.
3. Comparativos y superlativos irregulares
Estos son los más importantes y los que más aparecen en el examen:
| Positivo | Comparativo | Superlativo |
|---|---|---|
| good / well | better | the best |
| bad / badly | worse | the worst |
| much / many | more | the most |
| little / less | less | the least |
| far | farther / further | the farthest / the furthest |
3.1 Good / well → better → the best
-
This restaurant is better than the one we went to yesterday. ✓
-
Is it better to be rich or to be popular? ✓ (comparativo, no se compara explícitamente pero implica elección entre dos)
-
His skills are much better than ours. ✓ (much intensifica el comparativo)
-
Of all the girls in my Spanish class, Mary speaks the best. ✓
-
Last week we went to watch a play that was the best I have ever seen. ✓
-
John did well in the test, Sally did better, but Miho got the best grade. ✓
Formas incorrectas muy frecuentes en el examen:
gooder,goodest,more good,the more good,more better,much best→ TODAS incorrectas.
3.2 Bad → worse → the worst
-
In my view, cars are worse for the environment than trains. ✓
-
Valencia played worse than Real Madrid yesterday. ✓
-
That movie was bad, but it wasn't the worst I have ever seen. ✓
-
This is the worst food I have ever tasted. ✓
-
The weather this summer is even worse than last summer. ✓
-
The injuries are worse than I expected. ✓
-
Nothing can be worse than this. ✓
-
Last night I had the worst nightmare. ✓
Formas incorrectas:
badder,the baddest,worser,more bad,the more bad→ incorrectas.
3.3 Many / much → more → the most
-
You've got way more than I have. ✓
-
A C.D. player is more expensive than a T.V., but a camcorder is the most expensive. ✓
-
She's got less money than you, but she doesn't care. ✓ (less para incontables)
-
You've worked less than we have. ✓ (less para cantidades incontables/abstractas)
-
He is less hard-working than his sister. ✓
3.4 Far → farther / further → the farthest / the furthest
-
Miranda's house is farther than Robert's. ✓
-
Mark walked farther in one hour than Joseph did in 6 hours. ✓
-
Yes, this destination is farther than the previous one. ✓
-
Their house is the farthest from the main road. ✓ (superlativo con the)
Forma incorrecta:
farer,more far→ incorrectas.
4. Comparativo de igualdad: as ... as
Estructura: as + adjetivo/adverbio (forma base) + as
-
The pupil became as smart as his teacher. ✓
-
I am not as successful as my brother. ✓ (forma negativa: not as ... as)
-
She is not as rich as everyone believes her to be. ✓
-
This truck is not as fast as the one you bought. ✓ (también válido: not so fast as)
-
He was as funny as a clown. ✓
-
Ted threw the ball as hard as he could. ✓
-
He swam as fast as he could. ✓
-
The boss is the same age as you. ✓ (the same ... as, no than)
Forma negativa: not as ... as o not so ... as (ambas correctas, aunque not as ... as es más frecuente).
Errores habituales:
as ... than,so ... so,as richer as,as smartest as→ incorrectos. El adjetivo siempre en grado positivo (forma base).
5. Doble comparativo: cambio progresivo
Para expresar que algo cambia de manera continua se usa la estructura comparativo + and + comparativo:
-
She is getting more and more beautiful every day. (adjetivo largo)
-
We're all getting older and older. (adjetivo corto con -er)
-
The capital of the province is getting bigger and bigger.
-
To win a race is getting more and more difficult nowadays.
-
Jack's parents were getting more and more worried.
-
Our clothes are getting older and older.
-
These pigs are getting fatter and fatter.
-
The children are getting healthier and healthier.
-
Since Sally became a vegan, she's getting slimmer and slimmer.
-
My English is getting better and better. (irregular: better and better, no
more and more good)
Regla clave: si el comparativo usa -er, el doble comparativo es -er and -er. Si usa more, es more and more. Nunca se mezclan:
more and more bigger,more older→ incorrectos.
6. Estructura correlativa: the + comparativo, the + comparativo
Expresa relación proporcional entre dos cambios. Equivale en español a «cuanto más/menos..., más/menos...».
Estructura: The + [comparativo], the + [comparativo]
-
The hotter the food is, the more he likes it. ✓
-
The faster you drive in the city, the more probable it is that you will have an accident. ✓
Ambas partes llevan the y el adjetivo en comparativo (nunca en positivo ni en superlativo).
7. Preposiciones con superlativos
-
Con referencia a un lugar: in → the fastest man in the world, the highest building in the town, the safest city in Spain, one of the most beautiful buildings in the UK.
-
Con referencia a un grupo de cosas/personas: of → the hottest desert of all, of all the students.
Error frecuente:
the luckiest person of the world→ incorrecto; los lugares llevan in.
8. One of the + superlativo + sustantivo plural
-
London has one of the most beautiful buildings in the UK. ✓
-
Marseilles is one of France's most conflictive towns. ✓
El sustantivo tras el superlativo va siempre en plural.
9. Intensificadores del comparativo
Se pueden añadir palabras para reforzar o matizar el comparativo:
| Intensificador | Significado | Ejemplo |
|---|---|---|
| much | mucho | His skills are much better than ours. |
| far | con creces | She is far more intelligent. |
| even | incluso, todavía | The weather this summer is even worse than last summer. |
| way | de lejos (coloquial) | You've got way more than I have. |
| a lot | bastante | She's a lot taller than me. |
Error:
more betteres siempre incorrecto. Much better ✓, even worse ✓.
10. Comparativo vs. superlativo: elección entre dos
Cuando se comparan dos elementos, se usa el comparativo; cuando son tres o más, el superlativo.
-
Which of the two books is the more interesting one? (entre dos → more sin the o con the more; en el examen la respuesta es most cuando no se especifica «entre dos», es decir, se trata de elegir el mejor de la clase).
-
Juan is taller than Jesús, but Pedro is the tallest. (comparativo para dos; superlativo para el absoluto del grupo).
11. Resumen de errores más comunes en el examen
| Forma incorrecta | Forma correcta |
|---|---|
| bigger | |
| older | |
| faster | |
| sunnier | |
| better / the best | |
| worse / the worst | |
| worse | |
| worse | |
| farther | |
| farther | |
| as ... as | |
| so ... as o as ... as | |
| older and older | |
| bigger and bigger | |
| the luckiest | |
| the luckiest | |
| taller than | |
| the most ... in (con lugares) |
Genitivo sajón.
El genitivo sajón en inglés
El genitivo sajón (Saxon genitive o possessive 's) es la forma principal de expresar posesión, pertenencia o relación en inglés cuando el poseedor es una persona, un animal, un lugar geográfico, una organización o una referencia temporal. Equivale, en español, a la preposición «de» + posesor (invertido en inglés).
Estructura básica:
Poseedor + 's + cosa poseída
my sister's dog = el perro de mi hermana
1. Formación: reglas fundamentales
1.1 Singular: poseedor + 's
La regla general para cualquier sustantivo singular (sea cual sea la letra final, incluida la s) es añadir 's.
| Poseedor | Genitivo | Ejemplo |
|---|---|---|
| Patrick | Patrick's | Patrick's sister goes to school. |
| John | John's | John's sister is twelve years old. |
| the boy | the boy's | This is the boy's bike. |
| my father | my father's | My father's job is quite interesting. |
| the manager | the manager's | Where is the manager's office? |
| my sister | my sister's | My sister's dog is a huge mastiff. |
| the farmer | the farmer's | The farmer's tractor had engine problems. |
| the shepherd | the shepherd's | The shepherd's goats wreaked havoc. |
| the king | the king's | The king's crown weighs too much. |
| Virginia | Virginia's | That's Virginia's dog! |
| Alice | Alice's | This is Alice's house. |
| Spain | Spain's | That was Spain's happiest hour. |
| France | France's | The liberation of Paris was France's happiest day. |
| the city | the city's | There is the city's new theater. |
| today | today's | Ryanair has cancelled today's flight. |
| my sergeant | my sergeant's | → ver §5 (expresiones temporales) |
1.2 Nombres propios acabados en -s: dos opciones válidas
Cuando el nombre propio ya termina en s (como James, Charles, James Richards), el inglés formal permite dos formas:
-
James's (pronunciado /ˈdʒeɪmzɪz/) — preferida en inglés británico estándar y en el examen de la PN.
-
James' (sin s adicional) — también aceptada, sobre todo en escritura formal.
Ejemplos del examen:
-
James's nephew has a big dog. ✓ (James's + 's)
-
James Richards' novels have been translated to many languages. ✓ (nombre de dos palabras acabado en s → solo apóstrofo)
Forma inventada que NUNCA existe:
James'es→ incorrecto.
1.3 Plural regular (acabado en -s): poseedor + ' (solo apóstrofo)
Cuando el plural ya lleva -s, se añade únicamente el apóstrofo después de la s, sin añadir otra s:
| Poseedor (plural) | Genitivo | Ejemplo |
|---|---|---|
| the boys | the boys' | The boys' school is far away. |
| my parents | my parents' | My parents' house has big windows. |
| managers | managers' | Managers' wages are high. |
| the girls | the girls' | Those girls' dresses are very intense colored. |
| the Simpsons | the Simpsons' | The Simpsons' car is very old and slow. |
| the Browns | the Browns' | Those four boys are the Browns' boys. |
| the teachers | the teachers' | Tomorrow is the teachers' meeting. |
| students | students' | 100% of students' books are recycled. |
| flatmates | flatmates' | He's watching TV in his flatmates' room. |
| those girls | those girls' | Those girls' dresses are very colorful. |
Error frecuente:
the Simpsons's,the Browns's,managers's,parents's,girls's→ incorrectos.
1.4 Plural irregular (NO acaba en -s): poseedor + 's
Los plurales irregulares que no terminan en s siguen la misma regla que los singulares: 's:
| Plural irregular | Genitivo | Ejemplo |
|---|---|---|
| children | children's | The children's room is upstairs. |
| men | men's | Men's shoes are on the second floor. |
| women | women's | — |
Error crítico del examen:
childrens'ychildrensson incorrectos porque children ya es el plural irregular de child (no existe childrens).
2. Posesión compartida vs. posesión separada
Esta distinción aparece con frecuencia en el examen:
2.1 Posesión compartida (un solo objeto, compartido)
Se pone el 's solo en el último nombre:
-
Jack and Jill's wedding. (la boda de los dos juntos) ✓
-
Bob and Tom's father. (el mismo padre para los dos) ✓
-
Susan and Steve's school. (van al mismo colegio) ✓
-
Jack and Lisa's (son los padres de alguien, en común) ✓
2.2 Posesión separada (cada uno tiene la suya)
Se pone 's en cada nombre:
- Paul's and Rose's cars are high-end. (cada uno tiene su coche) ✓
En la práctica, el examen de la PN favorece mayoritariamente la posesión compartida con un solo 's al final.
3. Posesión con grupos o familias: the + Apellido + s'
Para referirse a una familia completa se pluraliza el apellido y se añade el apóstrofo:
-
Let's go to the Smiths'. They are throwing a party. ✓ (casa de los Smith)
-
Those four boys are Thompson's boys. ✓ (el apellido sin artículo también es posible cuando no hay ambigüedad)
-
The Simpsons' car is very old. ✓
-
The Browns' boys are over there. ✓
Error:
the Smith'simplicaría que solo hay un Smith;the Smiths's→ incorrecto.
4. El genitivo sajón como pronombre (sin sustantivo posterior)
El genitivo puede usarse sin repetir el sustantivo poseído cuando el contexto lo hace claro:
-
Whose car is that? It's John's. (se sobreentiende John's car)
-
Those are not my parents, they are Jack and Lisa's. ✓
-
Those industrial buildings are Pedro's. ✓
-
All these keys are my sister's. ✓
-
Those lands are John's. ✓
-
That house was Matt's, but the court took it from him. ✓
5. Expresiones temporales con genitivo sajón
El genitivo sajón se usa habitualmente con expresiones de tiempo para indicar duración o período:
| Expresión temporal | Ejemplo |
|---|---|
| a month's leave | My sergeant has got a month's leave. |
| two hours' walk | It's about two hours' walk from my house to yours. |
| today's flight | Ryanair has cancelled today's flight. |
| today's magazine | Will they have seen today's magazine? |
| last night's match | last night's match |
Regla ortográfica:
-
Período singular: a month's, an hour's, a week's ('s).
-
Período plural: two hours', three days', six months' (solo apóstrofo).
Atención al adjetivo compuesto:
-
a two-hour drive (el sustantivo actúa como adjetivo → sin genitivo, en singular, con guion) ✓
-
a two-hours' drive→ incorrecto en este contexto.
Ejemplo del examen: It's about a two-hour drive from home to the seaside. ✓ (aquí hour es modificador nominal, no lleva 's).
6. Genitivo sajón con nombres de lugar y organizaciones
6.1 Lugares geográficos y países: genitivo sajón
Con nombres de países, ciudades, regiones y continentes se usa habitualmente el genitivo sajón:
-
France's most conflictive towns ✓
-
Spain's happiest hour ✓
-
France's happiest day ✓
-
San Roque's dog ✓
-
New York's subway → aunque el examen en un caso concreto prefiere the New York subway (ver §7)
6.2 Organizaciones y títulos
-
King of Romania's ministers ✓ (el 's se añade al último elemento del sintagma nominal, no a King solo)
-
Captain Solo's ship ✓
7. Cuándo NO usar el genitivo sajón: la construcción of
El genitivo sajón es propio de poseedores animados (personas, animales) o de las expresiones reconocidas arriba (tiempo, lugar, organización). Para objetos inanimados se usa preferentemente la construcción of:
| Genitivo sajón (animados / tiempo / lugar) | Of (inanimados) |
|---|---|
| my sister's dog | the roof of the house |
| the farmer's tractor | the side of the box |
| today's flight | the end of the film |
| France's happiest day | the port of San Francisco |
| the children's room | the atmosphere of this place |
| men's shoes | the statues of the cathedral |
| — | the laws of my country |
| — | the success of the firm |
Ejemplos del examen donde el examinador prueba esta distinción:
-
The Port of San Francisco is one of the largest in the world. ✓ (lugar físico → of)
-
The New York subway is the longest in the country. ✓ (sintagma nominal compuesto, sin genitivo)
-
The statues of the cathedral were destroyed in the earthquake. ✓ (objeto inanimado → of)
-
The laws of my country are not fair. ✓
-
The success of the firm. ✓
-
The roof of the house. ✓ / The side of the box. ✓ / The end of the film. ✓
-
I like the atmosphere of this place. ✓
Sintagmas nominales compuestos (sin genitivo ni of):
Cuando el primer sustantivo actúa como modificador (adjetivo nominal) del segundo, no se usa genitivo:
-
a garden table (mesa de jardín) ✓ /
a garden's table✗ -
the commerce area (área comercial) ✓ /
the commerce's area✗ -
the stable door (la puerta del establo) ✓ /
the stable's door✗ -
the government minister (el ministro del gobierno) ✓
-
a Starfleet ship (nave de la Flota Estelar) ✓
-
a doorbell (timbre de la puerta, palabra compuesta) ✓
-
the New York subway ✓
8. Whose para preguntar por el poseedor
La palabra interrogativa para preguntar por el poseedor es whose (de quién):
-
Whose phone is this one? I think it's dad's. ✓
-
Whose bag is this? It is Sam's. ✓
-
Whose are those jeans on the floor? They are not mine, they are George's. ✓
-
Whose glasses are these? I think they are Ali's. ✓
Error de libro:
Who's phone= «¿Quién es el teléfono?» (contracción de who is) → incorrecto en este contexto.When phone,How phone→ incorrectos.
9. Genitivo con artículo: errores frecuentes
Cuando se usa el genitivo sajón, el artículo the o el adjetivo posesivo precede a toda la frase, no se intercala con el apóstrofo:
-
That's Virginia's dog. ✓ /
The Virginia's dog✗ (con nombre propio no se usa the) -
My brother's t-shirt. ✓ /
The t-shirt of my brother's✗ -
It's Mary's car. ✓ /
It's the Mary's car✗ /It's the Mary's the car✗ -
It's my father's car. ✓ /
It's my father's the car✗
Con nombres propios (personas) no se usa the antes del genitivo. Con sustantivos comunes definidos (the manager, the shepherd) sí se usa the antes del poseedor.
10. Genitivo sajón en construcciones con parents' (apóstrofo con vocal)
Una pregunta específica del examen prueba la forma con apóstrofo intercalado en vez de seguido:
-
I drove my parents' car yesterday. → el apóstrofo correcto es ' (después de parents), porque es un plural regular. ✓
-
I still live at my parents' house. ✓
11. Resumen visual: ¿'s o ' o of?
│
├── SÍ → Genitivo sajón
│ ├── Singular → poseedor + 's
│ │ (incluye plurales irregulares: children's, men's)
│ └── Plural regular (acaba en -s) → poseedor + '
│ (boys', parents', managers', children's ← irregular)
│
└── NO (objeto inanimado) → of + sustantivo ó sustantivo compuesto (sin genitivo ni of)
12. Tabla de errores típicos del examen
| Incorrecto | Correcto | Regla |
|---|---|---|
| children's | children ya es plural irregular | |
| John's | singular → 's | |
| Patrick's | solo un apóstrofo | |
| Simpsons' | plural regular → solo ' | |
| parents' | plural regular → solo ' | |
| managers' | plural regular → solo ' | |
| James's o James' | los dos son válidos, no 'es | |
| Virginia's dog | sin the con nombres propios | |
| Bob and Tom's father | posesión compartida → 's al final | |
| garden table | modificador nominal → sin genitivo | |
| the commerce area | modificador nominal → sin genitivo | |
| the statues of the cathedral | inanimado → of | |
| John's | poseedores animados → genitivo sajón | |
| a two-hour drive | adjetivo compuesto → sin 's, sin plural |
Cuantificadores. Much, many, a few, a lot...
Cuantificadores en inglés
Los cuantificadores son palabras o expresiones que indican cantidad. La regla de oro para elegir el cuantificador correcto es determinar si el sustantivo que acompaña es contable (countable) o incontable (uncountable).
1. Sustantivos contables e incontables
| Tipo | Definición | Ejemplos |
|---|---|---|
| Contables (countable) | Se pueden contar individualmente; tienen plural | book/books, car/cars, student/students |
| Incontables (uncountable) | No tienen forma plural; se tratan siempre en singular | water, money, music, rain, information, traffic, staff |
Atención: staff (personal), traffic (tráfico), furniture (muebles), news (noticias), advice (consejo) son incontables en inglés aunque en español se puedan contar.
2. MUCH / MANY
MUCH — con sustantivos incontables
Se usa principalmente en frases negativas e interrogativas. En afirmativas suena formal; se prefiere a lot of.
| Contexto | Ejemplo |
|---|---|
| Negativa | I don't drink much coffee. |
| Interrogativa | How much money did you spend? |
| Afirmativa (formal/literaria) | There is much work to be done. |
MANY — con sustantivos contables
Se usa en negativas, interrogativas y afirmativas.
| Contexto | Ejemplo |
|---|---|
| Negativa | There aren't many cheap restaurants. |
| Interrogativa | How many T-shirts do you keep in your wardrobe? |
| Afirmativa | They've come here many times. |
Truco: Si puedes añadir «-s» al sustantivo → many. Si no → much.
3. A LOT OF / LOTS OF / A LOT
-
A lot of / Lots of: válidos con sustantivos contables e incontables en cualquier tipo de oración.
-
A lot (sin of): se usa sin sustantivo a continuación, o al final de la frase.
-
Lots of: variante informal de a lot of.
| Ejemplo | Notas |
|---|---|
| She sold a lot of cars this year. | contable |
| There is a lot of work to do. | incontable |
| Thank you very much / so much / a lot. | sin sustantivo |
| The agents saw lots of people advancing. | informal |
Error frecuente: a lots of y a lot of of son incorrectos. Solo a lot of o lots of.
4. A FEW / FEW — A LITTLE / LITTLE
Este es uno de los puntos más examinados. La distinción es doble: contable vs. incontable y positivo vs. negativo.
| Cuantificador | Sustantivo | Significado | Ejemplo |
|---|---|---|---|
| a few | contable | algunos (cantidad pequeña, valoración positiva) | I have a few friends in England. |
| few | contable | pocos (cantidad insuficiente, valoración negativa) | There were few students in the classroom. |
| a little | incontable | un poco (valoración positiva) | I have a little water left. There's enough. |
| little | incontable | poco (cantidad insuficiente, valoración negativa) | We had little rain last autumn. |
Clave: Con artículo (a few, a little) el hablante ve el vaso medio lleno. Sin artículo (few, little) el hablante lo ve medio vacío.
"I have few friends." → Tengo pocos amigos (no son suficientes, mal).
A FEW OF / A LITTLE OF
Cuando va seguido de un determinante (the, my, these...) se añade of:
-
I've read a few of the books. (algunos de esos libros concretos)
-
She drank a little of the wine. (un poco de ese vino concreto)
Sin determinante: directamente el sustantivo.
-
The waiter brought a little soda and a few peanuts. ✓
-
The waiter brought a little of soda✗
5. SOME / ANY
| Cuantificador | Uso principal | Ejemplo |
|---|---|---|
| some | Frases afirmativas; peticiones y ofrecimientos | I need some help. / Would you like some grapes? |
| any | Frases negativas e interrogativas | Do they have any cards? / There aren't any people. |
Excepción importante: some se usa en preguntas cuando se ofrece algo o se espera una respuesta afirmativa: Would you like some water? ✓
6. NO / NONE
-
No va delante del sustantivo: There is no water.
-
None va solo (sin sustantivo): "Is there any water?" "None."/"None of them."
-
None of them → el pronombre va después de of: none of them / none of us / none of the students.
7. TOO / TOO MUCH / TOO MANY / ENOUGH
TOO — exceso delante de adjetivos y adverbios
Too + adjetivo/adverbio indica que hay más de lo deseable.
| Ejemplo | Notas |
|---|---|
| She was too tired to walk. | too + adjetivo |
| He arrived too late. | too + adverbio |
| I didn't buy the car because it was too expensive. |
Atención: too much delante de adjetivo es un error muy común en el examen:
She was too much tired✗ → She was too tired ✓
TOO MUCH / TOO MANY — exceso de cantidad
| Cuantificador | Sustantivo | Ejemplo |
|---|---|---|
| too much | incontable | You shouldn't drink too much beer. |
| too many | contable | Some experts think there are too many people on the planet. |
ENOUGH — suficiencia
-
Suficiencia: cantidad adecuada o habilidad suficiente.
-
Posición clave: enough va antes del sustantivo pero después del adjetivo/adverbio.
| Posición | Ejemplo |
|---|---|
| Antes del sustantivo | Do you have enough plates for fifteen people? |
| Después del adjetivo | She is old enough to get married. |
| Después del adverbio | I don't run fast enough. |
Error frecuente en examen:
enough old✗ → old enough ✓
8. SO MUCH / SO MANY — énfasis de cantidad
Se usan para expresar una cantidad grande con matiz enfático o emocional.
-
You make as much noise as she does.
-
My friends hadn't expected to have so many problems.
-
I don't know where to place this lamp. I don't have so much space.
Diferencia too vs. so: too indica exceso problemático (it's too expensive to buy); so expresa énfasis o consecuencia emotiva (I'm so tired!).
9. BOTH / EITHER / NEITHER
Estos tres cuantificadores se refieren siempre a exactamente dos elementos.
| Cuantificador | Significado | Uso | Ejemplo |
|---|---|---|---|
| both | los dos / ambos | afirmación de los dos | Both doors were closed. / I like both pop music and classical music. |
| either | cualquiera de los dos / uno u otro | elección entre dos; también con or | Try to find your son in either of these two rooms. / Either he or she must go. |
| neither | ninguno de los dos | negación de ambos; también con nor | Neither of them knew. / Neither my parents nor hers have come. |
Posición de BOTH
-
Delante del sustantivo: Both doors were closed.
-
Delante del verbo principal (detrás de auxiliares): They both looked at each other. / Did you both enjoy the trip?
-
Como pronombre: I like both of them.
EITHER ... OR / NEITHER ... NOR
Correlativas usadas en frases:
-
Either ... or: «o ... o» (una de las dos opciones) → Either you pay or you leave.
-
Neither ... nor: «ni ... ni» (ninguna de las dos) → I like neither westerns nor horror movies.
Truco: neither ... nor es la doble negación formal. En informal: I don't like westerns or horror movies.
10. ALL / EVERY / EACH
| Cuantificador | Significado | Diferencias clave | Ejemplo |
|---|---|---|---|
| all | todo/todos (en conjunto) | Con sustantivo plural sin artículo; o «all the + sustantivo»; o «all + singular sin artículo» para expresar totalidad de tiempo | All the passengers looked bored. / He spent all week studying. / I've been studying all day. |
| every | cada (uno) — idea de «sin excepción» | Solo con singular; no se usa con of | We've got elections every four years. / There's a bus every ten minutes. |
| each | cada (uno) — individualmente | Con singular; puede ir con of + pronombre | Each of us has to make a choice. / He gave us two euros each. |
All vs. Every: all students = todos los estudiantes como grupo; every student = cada estudiante individualmente (sin excepción).
ALL pospuesto tras pronombre objeto
All puede colocarse después de un pronombre objeto (o de it/them) para indicar la totalidad del objeto. Esta posición es diferente de «all + sustantivo» antepuesto:
-
She finished it all. (Lo terminó todo.)
-
They drank it all in one night. (Se lo bebieron todo en una noche.)
-
He spent it all on clothes. (Se lo gastó todo en ropa.)
Contraste: She ate all the cake (all antepuesto al sustantivo) vs. She ate it all (all pospuesto al pronombre).
11. MOST / MOST OF
-
Most + sustantivo sin artículo: Most people know that. (la mayoría de la gente en general)
-
Most of + determinante + sustantivo: Most of the students passed. (la mayoría de esos estudiantes concretos)
12. ONE ANOTHER / EACH OTHER
-
Each other: reciprocidad entre dos personas.
-
One another: reciprocidad entre más de dos (aunque en la práctica se usan indistintamente).
At the end of the match, the two players said: «Let's follow each other on Instagram!»
13. ANOTHER / OTHER / THE OTHER
| Expresión | Uso | Ejemplo |
|---|---|---|
| another | un + singular indefinido adicional | I've been drinking a while. If I have another glass of vodka, I'll faint. |
| other + plural | varios adicionales sin determinante | You'll have to pass three other tests. |
| the other | el otro / los otros (determinado, se sabe cuál) | Don't bring that one. Bring the other one, the one on the table. |
14. SOMETHING / ANYTHING / NOTHING — pronombres indefinidos de cosa
| Forma | Uso | Ejemplo |
|---|---|---|
| something | afirmativas; ofrecimientos | I need something to eat. |
| anything | negativas, interrogativas; también = «cualquier cosa» | Did anyone phone me? / I would do anything to get his autograph. |
| nothing | sujeto negativo sin not | Nothing happened. |
15. WHOLE / ALL
-
The whole + singular: Peter ate the whole apple. (el objeto en su totalidad)
-
All + artículo + plural: All the apples were eaten.
-
All + singular sin artículo (tiempo): He spent all week studying.
Tabla resumen general
| Cuantificador | Contable | Incontable | Afirmativa | Negativa | Interrogativa |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| much | ✗ | ✓ | (formal) | ✓ | ✓ |
| many | ✓ | ✗ | ✓ | ✓ | ✓ |
| a lot of | ✓ | ✓ | ✓ | ✓ | ✓ |
| a few | ✓ | ✗ | ✓ (positivo) | — | — |
| few | ✓ | ✗ | ✓ (negativo) | — | — |
| a little | ✗ | ✓ | ✓ (positivo) | — | — |
| little | ✗ | ✓ | ✓ (negativo) | — | — |
| some | ✓ | ✓ | ✓ | ✗ | ofrecimientos |
| any | ✓ | ✓ | ✗ | ✓ | ✓ |
| enough | ✓ | ✓ | ✓ | ✓ | ✓ |
| too much | ✗ | ✓ | ✓ | — | — |
| too many | ✓ | ✗ | ✓ | — | — |
Errores más frecuentes en el examen
-
too much+ adjetivo → usar solo too: too tired ✓,too much tired✗ -
a little of+ sustantivo sin determinante → a little water ✓,a little of water✗ -
a lots of→ siempre a lot of ✓ -
enough old→ siempre adjetivo + enough: old enough ✓ -
none of they→ siempre pronombre objeto: none of them ✓ -
fews→ few es invariable, sin «-s» ✓ -
somes→ some es invariable ✓
Pronombres.
Pronombres en inglés
Un pronombre es una palabra que sustituye al sustantivo (o al sintagma nominal) para evitar su repetición. En inglés los pronombres varían según su función sintáctica (sujeto, objeto, posesivo…) y según la persona, número y género.
1. Pronombres personales: sujeto y objeto
| Persona | Sujeto (Subject) | Objeto (Object) |
|---|---|---|
| 1.ª sing. | I | me |
| 2.ª sing./pl. | you | you |
| 3.ª sing. masc. | he | him |
| 3.ª sing. fem. | she | her |
| 3.ª sing. cosa/animal | it | it |
| 1.ª pl. | we | us |
| 3.ª pl. | they | them |
Pronombre sujeto
Funciona como sujeto del verbo.
-
She is a doctor.
-
They arrived late.
Pronombre objeto
Funciona como objeto directo, objeto indirecto o complemento de preposición.
-
The teacher explained it to us.
-
Nobody told him the truth.
-
That book is for her.
Error frecuente:
none of they✗ → none of them ✓ (tras preposición siempre forma objeto)
2. Pronombres y adjetivos posesivos
| Persona | Adjetivo posesivo | Pronombre posesivo |
|---|---|---|
| I | my | mine |
| you | your | yours |
| he | his | his |
| she | her | hers |
| it | its | — |
| we | our | ours |
| they | their | theirs |
Adjetivo posesivo
Siempre va delante del sustantivo; no puede ir solo.
- This is my pen. / She cut her hair.
Pronombre posesivo
Sustituye al sintagma «adjetivo posesivo + sustantivo»; va solo, sin sustantivo.
-
This is mine. (= my pen) / Yours is over there.
-
Mrs González and her daughter always make their own dresses.
Posesivos + own: my own, your own, his own, her own, our own, their own — añaden énfasis de autonomía («el suyo propio / sin ayuda de nadie»).
3. Pronombres reflexivos e intensivos
| Persona | Reflexivo / Intensivo |
|---|---|
| I | myself |
| you (sing.) | yourself |
| he | himself |
| she | herself |
| it | itself |
| we | ourselves |
| you (pl.) | yourselves |
| they | themselves |
Ojo: No existe
theirselvesniourself; las formas correctas son themselves y ourselves.
Uso reflexivo
El sujeto y el objeto son la misma persona:
-
She bought herself a sweater. (se compró a sí misma)
-
We can move the table by ourselves. (nosotros solos)
Uso intensivo
Se añade para enfatizar quién realiza la acción (puede omitirse sin cambiar el significado):
-
I did it myself. (yo mismo lo hice)
-
The president himself signed the document.
By + reflexivo = sin ayuda
- He repaired the car by himself. (él solo, sin ayuda)
4. Pronombres demostrativos
| Cerca (aquí) | Lejos (allí) | |
|---|---|---|
| Singular | this | that |
| Plural | these | those |
-
This / these: para algo cercano al hablante (aquí, ahora).
-
That / those: para algo lejano al hablante (allí, antes).
Regla de oro: this/these → singular/plural del mismo modo que that/those. No existe
these onenithose one; se dice this one / that one / these ones / those ones.
| Ejemplo | Notas |
|---|---|
| This is my pen, yours is over there. | singular + cerca |
| Look at this ring over here. | adjetivo demostrativo + cerca |
| Which one do you want? That one, right there. | señalando algo lejos |
| These shoes are comfortable. | plural + cerca |
5. Pronombres relativos
Introducen una oración subordinada de relativo que modifica a un antecedente.
| Pronombre | Antecedente | Función | Ejemplo |
|---|---|---|---|
| who | persona | sujeto | The man who called was a detective. |
| whom | persona | objeto (formal) | The woman whom I met was kind. |
| which | cosa / animal | sujeto u objeto | The car which broke down was old. |
| that | persona o cosa | sujeto u objeto (informal/restrictiva) | This phone is better than the first one that you showed me. |
| whose | personas / cosas | posesión | The student whose essay won the prize... |
| where | lugar | circunstancial | The city where I was born. |
| when | tiempo | circunstancial | The day when we met. |
Relativas especificativas vs. explicativas
-
Especificativa (defining): sin comas; identifica al antecedente; puede usarse that.
-
This is the book that/which I recommended.
-
Explicativa (non-defining): con comas; añade información extra; no se puede usar that.
-
My sister, who lives in London, is a nurse.
Error frecuente:
the wich✗ → which ✓ (sin artículo)
6. Pronombres indefinidos
Se dividen según se refieran a personas, cosas o lugares.
| Afirmativa | Negativa / interrogativa | Universal | |
|---|---|---|---|
| Persona | someone / somebody | anyone / anybody | everyone / everybody, no one / nobody |
| Cosa | something | anything | everything, nothing |
| Lugar | somewhere | anywhere | everywhere, nowhere |
Reglas de uso
| Forma | Contexto | Ejemplo |
|---|---|---|
| someone/something/somewhere | Afirmativas; ofrecimientos | I need something to eat. |
| anyone/anything/anywhere | Negativas, interrogativas; o «cualquier(a)» | Did anyone phone me? / I would do anything for you. |
| everyone/everything | Valor universal | Everyone at the party had a great time. |
| no one/nothing/nowhere | Negación sin not | Nobody was there. |
Concordancia: everyone, somebody, anyone son gramaticalmente singulares aunque semánticamente se refieran a varias personas → Everyone was happy. ✓ (no
were)
7. Pronombres recíprocos
| Pronombre | Uso | Ejemplo |
|---|---|---|
| each other | reciprocidad entre dos | The two players decided to follow each other on Instagram. |
| one another | reciprocidad entre más de dos (aunque se intercambian) | They used to give one another many presents. |
8. ANOTHER / OTHER / THE OTHER (pronombres y determinantes)
| Forma | Uso | Ejemplo |
|---|---|---|
| another | singular indefinido, adicional | I'd like another glass, please. |
| other + pl. sin artículo | varios, indefinidos | You'll pass three other tests. |
| the other | el otro / los otros determinados | Bring the other one. / The other students left. |
| others (pronombre) | otros (indefinido, sin sustantivo) | Some people agree; others don't. |
9. Pronombres interrogativos
| Pronombre | Uso | Ejemplo |
|---|---|---|
| who | sujeto → persona | Who called you? |
| whom | objeto → persona (formal) | Whom did you call? |
| which | elección entre opciones limitadas | Which coat do you prefer? |
| what | preguntas abiertas sobre cosas | What is your name? |
| whose | posesión | Whose book is this? |
10. Tabla de errores frecuentes en el examen
| Error común | Forma correcta | Explicación |
|---|---|---|
| none of them | Tras preposición → pronombre objeto | |
| themselves | No existe esa forma | |
| ourselves | No existe esa forma | |
| which | Sin artículo | |
| this one | Concordancia singular | |
| that one / those ones | Concordancia | |
| her own car ✓ (es correcto) | own va entre posesivo y sustantivo | |
| its | it's = it is; its = posesivo |
Resumen visual: cadena de pronombres
Sujeto → Objeto → Posesivo adjetivo → Posesivo pronombre → Reflexivo
I → me → my → mine → myself you → you → your → yours → yourself/yourselves he → him → his → his → himself she → her → her → hers → herself it → it → its → — → itself we → us → our → ours → ourselves they → them → their → theirs → themselves
Verbos modales y semi-modales.
Verbos modales y semi-modales en inglés
Los verbos modales son verbos auxiliares que expresan actitudes o juicios del hablante sobre la acción del verbo principal: posibilidad, permiso, obligación, capacidad, etc. Sus características formales los distinguen de los verbos ordinarios.
1. Características generales de los modales
-
No llevan -s en 3.ª persona del singular: He can swim. (nunca
he cans) -
Se niegan con not directamente: She cannot/can't come.
-
Forman preguntas por inversión, sin do: Can you help me?
-
Van seguidos de infinitivo sin to: You must go. (no
must to go) -
No tienen infinitivo propio ni participio: se usan perífrasis para tiempos compuestos.
2. Tabla maestra de modales
| Modal | Presente/Futuro | Pasado | Condicional |
|---|---|---|---|
| can | can | could | could |
| may | may | might | might |
| must | must | had to (o must + have + p.p.) | would have to |
| shall | shall | should (en algunos contextos) | should |
| will | will | would | would |
| should | should | should + have + p.p. | — |
| ought to | ought to | ought to + have + p.p. | — |
3. CAN / COULD
CAN — presente y futuro
| Significado | Ejemplo |
|---|---|
| Capacidad (habilidad física o mental) | She can speak three languages. |
| Permiso (informal) | Can I use your phone? |
| Posibilidad (teórica) | Accidents can happen anywhere. |
| Oferta / propuesta | I can help you if you want. |
COULD — pasado de CAN / condicional / posibilidad
| Significado | Ejemplo |
|---|---|
| Capacidad en el pasado | When I was young, I could run very fast. |
| Petición educada (más formal que can) | Could you open the window, please? |
| Posibilidad (menos segura que can) | It could rain tonight. |
| Sugerencia | We could go to the cinema. |
COULD + HAVE + participio — capacidad o posibilidad pasada no realizada
-
She could have passed the exam, but she didn't study. (podría haber aprobado pero no lo hizo)
-
He could have been injured. (podría haberse lesionado)
4. MAY / MIGHT
MAY — permiso formal y posibilidad
| Significado | Ejemplo |
|---|---|
| Permiso (formal) | May I come in? |
| Posibilidad (probabilidad media-alta, ~50 %) | It may rain this afternoon. |
| Deseos (formal/literario) | May you both be very happy. |
MIGHT — posibilidad reducida / condicional de MAY
| Significado | Ejemplo |
|---|---|
| Posibilidad (probabilidad baja, ~30-40 %) | She might come to the party, but I'm not sure. |
| Condicional de may | I thought it might rain. |
| Sugerencia cautelosa | You might want to see a doctor. |
MIGHT + HAVE + participio — posibilidad pasada
- She might have forgotten her keys. (puede que se haya olvidado)
Grado de probabilidad: will (99 %) > should (90 %) > may (50 %) > might (30-40 %) > could (teórico)
5. MUST / MUSTN'T
MUST — obligación y deducción
| Significado | Ejemplo |
|---|---|
| Obligación (impuesta por el hablante) | You must wear a seatbelt. |
| Deducción lógica (certeza alta) | She's not answering — she must be asleep. |
MUSTN'T — prohibición
- You mustn't park here. (está prohibido)
Atención: MUSTN'T ≠ DON'T HAVE TO
- You mustn't go. = No debes ir (prohibición).
- You don't have to go. = No tienes que ir (no es obligatorio, pero puedes).
MUST + HAVE + participio — deducción sobre el pasado
- She must have left already. (sin duda ya se ha ido)
6. SHOULD / SHOULDN'T
| Significado | Ejemplo |
|---|---|
| Consejo / recomendación | You should see a doctor. |
| Obligación moral (más suave que must) | You shouldn't smoke so much. |
| Expectativa | The train should arrive at 9. (se supone que llega a las 9) |
| Crítica al pasado (should have + p.p.) | We should have bought enough beer for the party. (deberíamos haber comprado) |
Should have + p.p. se usa para criticar o lamentar una acción pasada no realizada.
7. WOULD
| Significado | Ejemplo |
|---|---|
| Condicional (resultado de condición) | If I had money, I would travel. |
| Futuro en el pasado | She said she would come. |
| Petición educada | Would you like some grapes? |
| Voluntad / disposición (pasado) | He wouldn't listen to me. (no quería escucharme) |
| Hábito en el pasado | When I was a child, I would play here. |
WOULD + HAVE + participio — condicional pasado
- They would have won if they had trained harder.
8. WILL / SHALL
WILL
| Significado | Ejemplo |
|---|---|
| Futuro (predicción, decisión espontánea) | I will call you tomorrow. |
| Oferta / promesa | I will help you. |
| Voluntad / insistencia | She will keep talking during the film. |
| Probabilidad alta | That will be Peter at the door. |
SHALL
Uso más restringido en inglés moderno:
-
Oferta / sugerencia con I/we: Shall I open the window?
-
Propuesta: Shall we go?
9. Semi-modales (Modal-like verbs)
Los semi-modales (también llamados marginal modals) expresan significados similares a los modales pero tienen formas verbales completas (se conjugan, llevan to, admiten infinitivo, gerundio, etc.).
HAVE TO / HAVE GOT TO — obligación externa
| Forma | Uso |
|---|---|
| have to + infinitivo | Obligación impuesta por factores externos (reglas, circunstancias) |
| has to (3.ª persona) | He has to wear a uniform. |
| had to (pasado) | She had to work last weekend. |
| don't have to | Ausencia de obligación (no necesidad) |
-
Comparison: must = obligación del hablante; have to = obligación externa.
-
I must study. (me obligo a mí mismo)
-
I have to study. (el profesor/examen me lo impone)
OUGHT TO — obligación moral / consejo
Significado muy similar a should, pero ligeramente más formal:
-
You ought to see a doctor.
-
She ought to have called before coming. (debería haber llamado)
Forma: ought to + infinitivo (con to, a diferencia de los modales puros).
USED TO — hábito o estado pasado (ya no vigente)
| Aspecto | Ejemplo |
|---|---|
| Hábito pasado | I used to smoke, but I quit. |
| Estado pasado | She used to live in Paris. |
| Negación | He didn't use to eat vegetables. |
| Interrogación | Did you use to play football? |
Diferencia used to vs. would:
- Ambos expresan hábito pasado, pero used to también puede expresar estado (I used to be thin), mientras que would solo expresa acciones repetidas (When I was young, I would play here).
NEED TO / NEED — necesidad
-
Need to (semi-modal): You need to practise more.
-
Needn't (modal puro, formal): You needn't worry. = No es necesario que te preocupes.
-
Needn't + have + p.p.: acción pasada innecesaria (pero se realizó): You needn't have cooked so much. (no era necesario, pero lo hiciste)
WOULD RATHER — preferencia
Would rather + infinitivo sin to expresa preferencia personal («preferiría»). Para comparar dos acciones se añade than + infinitivo sin to:
| Estructura | Ejemplo |
|---|---|
| would rather + inf. sin to | I would rather stay at home. (Preferiría quedarme en casa.) |
| would rather + inf. + than + inf. | She would rather walk than take the bus. (Prefiere caminar a coger el autobús.) |
| would rather + not + inf. | I would rather not go to the party. (Preferiría no ir a la fiesta.) |
Contracción frecuente: I 'd rather go. = I would rather go.
Diferencia would rather vs. had better
| Expresión | Significado | Matiz |
|---|---|---|
| would rather | preferencia personal | sin implicación de consecuencia negativa |
| had better | consejo urgente | implica amenaza o consecuencia negativa si no se hace |
-
I 'd rather take a taxi than walk in the rain. (simple preferencia)
-
You 'd better take a taxi or you'll miss the train. (consejo urgente — hay consecuencia)
Forma: ambos van seguidos de infinitivo sin to. Nunca:
would rather to go✗,had better to go✗.
BE ABLE TO — capacidad (alternativa a can)
Necesaria cuando can no dispone de la forma requerida:
-
Futuro: I will be able to come tomorrow. (no:
will can) -
Perfecto: She has been able to finish it.
-
Infinitivo: I'd like to be able to drive.
10. Modales en pasado: MODAL + HAVE + PARTICIPIO
Esta estructura expresa juicios sobre el pasado:
| Estructura | Significado | Ejemplo |
|---|---|---|
| must + have + p.p. | Deducción segura sobre el pasado | She must have left early. |
| can't + have + p.p. | Deducción negativa (imposibilidad) | He can't have done it; he was here. |
| could + have + p.p. | Posibilidad pasada no realizada | You could have passed the exam. |
| should + have + p.p. | Consejo / crítica hacia el pasado | We should have bought more beer. |
| might + have + p.p. | Posibilidad pasada incierta | She might have forgotten. |
| would + have + p.p. | Condicional pasado (3.ª condición) | I would have helped if I had known. |
| needn't + have + p.p. | Acción pasada innecesaria realizada | You needn't have worried. |
11. Cuadro de usos por significado
Obligación
| Forma | Intensidad | Tipo |
|---|---|---|
| must | fuerte | obligación del hablante |
| have to | fuerte | obligación externa |
| should / ought to | media | consejo / obligación moral |
| had better | media-alta (con amenaza implícita) | consejo urgente |
Prohibición
-
mustn't: prohibición fuerte.
-
shouldn't: desaconsejado, menos fuerte.
-
can't: prohibición o imposibilidad.
Permiso
| Formal | Informal |
|---|---|
| may | can |
| might (interrogativa muy formal) | could (educado) |
Posibilidad / probabilidad
| Modal | Probabilidad aproximada |
|---|---|
| will | ~99 % (casi certeza) |
| must | ~95 % (deducción lógica) |
| should | ~90 % (expectativa) |
| may | ~50 % |
| might / could | ~30-40 % |
Capacidad
| Tiempo | Forma |
|---|---|
| Presente | can |
| Pasado | could |
| Futuro / perfecto / infinitivo | be able to |
12. Errores frecuentes en el examen
| Error | Forma correcta | Explicación |
|---|---|---|
| must go | Modales + infinitivo sin to | |
| He can swim | Sin -s en 3.ª persona | |
| ought to have bought | Participio irregular | |
| She could have gone | Participio, no infinitivo | |
| should have bought enough beer | Orden: enough delante del sustantivo | |
| Confundir mustn't y don't have to | mustn't = prohibición; don't have to = no obligación | Significados opuestos |
| used to + infinitivo | used to go, no |
Resumen rápido de semi-modales
| Semi-modal | + to | Pasado disponible | Ejemplo clave |
|---|---|---|---|
| have to | sí | had to | I had to work. |
| ought to | sí | ought to have + p.p. | You ought to have called. |
| used to | sí | solo pasado | I used to play chess. |
| need to | sí | needed to | She needed to rest. |
| be able to | sí | was/were able to | He was able to finish. |
| had better | no (sin to) | — (solo pasado comp.) | You had better hurry. |
Condicionales.
Condicionales en inglés
Las oraciones condicionales expresan que algo ocurre (o habría ocurrido) dependiendo del cumplimiento de una condición. La cláusula con if (prótasis) introduce la condición; la cláusula principal (apódosis) expresa el resultado.
1. Condicional Tipo 0 — Verdades generales y hechos científicos
Estructura: If + presente simple, presente simple
Se usa para verdades universales, leyes científicas o situaciones que son siempre ciertas.
| Cláusula if | Resultado |
|---|---|
| If you heat water to 100 °C, | it boils. |
| If it rains, | the ground gets wet. |
| If you mix red and blue, | you get purple. |
La palabra when puede sustituir a if sin cambio de significado: When you heat water, it boils.
2. Condicional Tipo 1 — Primera condicional (real/posible en el futuro)
Estructura: If + presente simple, will + infinitivo
Expresa situaciones reales o muy posibles en el futuro. La condición es factible.
| Cláusula if | Resultado |
|---|---|
| If it snows this weekend, | we will go skiing. |
| If she doesn't do her homework, | she will be punished. |
| If John gets home before eight, | we will visit my parents. |
| If you continue taking this medicine, | you will get better. |
Variantes del resultado en Tipo 1
El resultado no siempre es will: puede aparecer can, may, might, should, must + infinitivo.
-
If you can speak Spanish, you will spend next year in Mexico.
-
If he can't come, he should telephone.
-
If you won some money, you might buy a new car. (matiz de posibilidad)
Otras conjunciones con Tipo 1
| Conjunción | Ejemplo |
|---|---|
| unless (= if not) | Unless you give up smoking, you won't feel better. |
| provided (that) | I will come to the party provided that there is a karaoke machine. |
| as long as | You can borrow it as long as you return it. |
Atención: Tras unless, provided that, as long as y if, el verbo en la cláusula condicional va en presente, nunca en futuro: If it snows (no if it will snow).
3. Condicional Tipo 2 — Segunda condicional (hipotética en el presente/futuro)
Estructura: If + pasado simple, would + infinitivo
Expresa situaciones hipotéticas, imaginarias o muy improbables en el presente o futuro. El hablante no espera que la condición se cumpla.
| Cláusula if | Resultado |
|---|---|
| If I lived in the USA, | I would visit Las Vegas. |
| If my mum knew that, | she would be angry with me. |
| If I had a gym membership, | I would exercise more. |
| If these walls were thicker, | we wouldn't hear the neighbours. |
Uso especial de «were» en Tipo 2
Con el verbo to be, el inglés formal y estándar de examen usa were para todas las personas (yo, tú, él…), no was. Esto es especialmente frecuente en exámenes oficiales.
-
If I were you, I wouldn't do that.
-
If she were my age, I would ask her out.
-
What would you do if you were the president?
-
If he were taller, he would get the job.
En inglés coloquial se admite was con yo/él/ella/ello, pero en exámenes de oposición la respuesta correcta es siempre were.
Variantes modales en Tipo 2
En el resultado pueden aparecer could, might, should en lugar de would.
-
If you spoke a couple of foreign languages, you'd get a much better job.
-
If you won some money, you might buy a new car.
4. Condicional Tipo 3 — Tercera condicional (irreal en el pasado)
Estructura: If + past perfect (had + participio), would have + participio
Expresa situaciones que no ocurrieron en el pasado y su resultado hipotético. El hablante lamenta lo que pasó o lo que podría haber sido diferente.
| Cláusula if | Resultado |
|---|---|
| If he had studied harder, | he would have got better marks. |
| If I had come to the party, | I would have seen you. |
| If she hadn't driven to his house, | she wouldn't have had an accident. |
| If you hadn't been looking at your phone, | you wouldn't have burnt my cake. |
Estructura interrogativa
-
What would you have done if you hadn't become a policeman?
-
If it had rained yesterday, what would you have done?
Variantes modales en Tipo 3
-
This wall could have been painted this morning.
-
That rude man shouldn't have been offered a job with us.
5. Condicionales mixtos
Mezclan tiempos de diferentes tipos cuando la condición y el resultado pertenecen a momentos distintos.
Tipo 3 condición + Tipo 2 resultado (pasado → presente)
Condición irreal en el pasado, resultado en el presente.
Estructura: If + past perfect, would + infinitivo
-
If I had studied medicine (en el pasado), I would be a doctor now (hoy).
-
If he had been aware of the consequences, he wouldn't steal now.
Tipo 2 condición + Tipo 3 resultado (presente → pasado)
Condición hipotética en el presente, resultado relacionado con el pasado.
Estructura: If + pasado simple, would have + participio
- If she were more careful (ahora), she would have avoided the accident (antes).
6. «Unless» — detalle completo
Unless equivale a if … not (a menos que / a no ser que). Introduce la única condición en que el resultado se frustra.
-
Unless you lose weight, you won't be able to do any more push-ups. (= If you don't lose weight, you won't be able to…)
-
Unless you pay attention to your teacher, you won't improve your marks.
-
Rebecca won't get a good job unless she does more training courses.
-
Don't call me unless it is an emergency.
Nunca se usa unless seguido de negación:
unless you don't. Es redundante y erróneo.
7. «Provided (that)» y «As long as»
Ambas significan «siempre que / con tal de que». Siguen las mismas reglas de tiempo que if en Tipo 1.
-
I will come to the party provided that there is going to be a karaoke machine.
-
They would have spent the whole week at the campsite, provided they had brought enough food and water. (Tipo 3)
-
Provided that someone gave me the money, I'd travel around the world. (Tipo 2)
8. «Wish» — deseos y lamentos
Wish expresa deseos sobre situaciones presentes, pasadas o que no ocurrieron. Los tiempos del verbo subordinado retroceden igual que en los condicionales.
8.1 Wish + pasado simple → deseo sobre el presente
El hablante lamenta que algo NO sea así ahora.
-
I wish I were as rich as Mr Burns. (desearía ser rico ahora, pero no lo soy)
-
She doesn't have many friends. She wishes she had more.
-
He wishes he were more handsome!
-
I wish I knew all the answers.
-
I wish I didn't want to get married.
Con to be, en wish también se prefiere were para todas las personas en contexto formal.
8.2 Wish + past perfect → lamento sobre el pasado
El hablante lamenta que algo NO haya ocurrido (o que sí haya ocurrido).
-
I wish I hadn't drunk so much. (past perfect de drink: had drunk)
-
I wish I hadn't started reading it.
-
I wish I had gone to the concert.
Errores comunes:
hadn't drank(drank es simple past, no participio),hadn't drink(incorrecto).
8.3 Wish + would → deseo de cambio de conducta ajena
- I wish he would stop making so much noise.
9. «As if / As though» — comparación hipotética
As if y as though introducen comparaciones imaginarias. Si la situación es irreal, el verbo va en pasado.
-
He behaved at work as if all the things at the office were his.
-
She spoke as if she knew everything.
10. Inversión en condicionales formales (sin «if»)
En inglés formal o literario, if puede omitirse invirtiendo el sujeto y el auxiliar.
| Con «if» | Con inversión |
|---|---|
| If he had known… | Had he known… |
| If I were you… | Were I you… |
| If they should need help… | Should they need help… |
11. Tabla resumen de los cuatro tipos
| Tipo | Tiempo IF | Tiempo resultado | Uso |
|---|---|---|---|
| 0 | Presente simple | Presente simple | Verdades universales |
| 1 | Presente simple | will + inf. | Situación real/posible |
| 2 | Pasado simple | would + inf. | Situación hipotética (presente/futuro) |
| 3 | Past perfect | would have + part. | Situación irreal (pasado) |
| Mixto | Past perfect | would + inf. | Pasado → consecuencia presente |
12. Errores frecuentes en examen
| Incorrecto | Correcto | Razón |
|---|---|---|
| If it will snow… | If it snows… | No se usa futuro tras if/unless |
| I would have went | I would have gone | Participio irregular de go |
| If I was you | If I were you | were en condicionales tipo 2 con to be |
| I wish I hadn't drank | I wish I hadn't drunk | drunk es el participio, drank es simple past |
| Would have bringed | Would have brought | Participio irregular de bring |
| She wouldn't have stole | She wouldn't have stolen | Participio irregular de steal |
| If she had knew | If she had known | Participio irregular de know |
| He wouldn't had let | He wouldn't have let | let es invariable en participio |
Voz pasiva y activa.
Voz pasiva y voz activa en inglés
En voz activa, el sujeto realiza la acción. En voz pasiva, el sujeto recibe la acción. La pasiva es muy frecuente en inglés para desviar el foco del agente, en instrucciones, textos académicos y noticias.
1. Formación general de la voz pasiva
Fórmula básica: sujeto + verbo to be (tiempo correcto) + participio pasado
El complemento agente (quien realiza la acción) se introduce con by y es opcional.
-
Activa: García Márquez wrote the book.
-
Pasiva: The book was written by García Márquez.
-
Activa: A Spanish architect designed the building.
-
Pasiva: The building was designed by a Spanish architect.
2. Pasiva en todos los tiempos verbales
| Tiempo | Fórmula (to be + participio) | Ejemplo |
|---|---|---|
| Presente simple | am/is/are + part. | The newspaper is received every day. |
| Presente continuo | am/is/are + being + part. | The problem is being solved right now. |
| Pasado simple | was/were + part. | The book was written in Spanish. |
| Pasado continuo | was/were + being + part. | When we went up, the room was being cleaned. |
| Presente perfecto | has/have + been + part. | A new medicine has been created in Sweden. |
| Pasado perfecto | had + been + part. | The envelope had already been opened. |
| Futuro simple | will + be + part. | The negotiations will be postponed indefinitely. |
| Futuro perfecto | will + have + been + part. | The road will have been repaired by Tuesday. |
| Condicional simple | would + be + part. | It would be appreciated if you replied soon. |
| Condicional perfecto | would + have + been + part. | This wall could have been painted this morning. |
| going to | am/is/are + going to + be + part. | Another Picasso is going to be bought by him. |
| Infinitivo | to + be + part. | They want the works to be done as soon as possible. |
| Gerundio | being + part. | Most people hate being kept waiting. |
3. Detalle de cada tiempo con ejemplos de examen
3.1 Presente simple pasivo
am / is / are + participio
-
VW cars are made in Germany and the Czech Republic.
-
Our classroom is cleaned once a week.
-
The market is closed on Mondays.
-
Vegetables are grown in my garden.
-
About six thousand babies are born in our country every day.
-
Somebody follows me home every evening → Every evening I am followed home.
3.2 Presente continuo pasivo
am / is / are + being + participio
-
The old car factory is being pulled down at this moment.
-
The human genome is being mapped by scientists.
-
New planets are being discovered every day.
-
The mistake is being solved right now.
-
My father's car is being repaired just now.
3.3 Pasado simple pasivo
was / were + participio
-
The book was written by García Márquez.
-
A lot of hooligans were arrested during the Final.
-
The soldier was injured in the landing.
-
The driver was fined for driving too slow.
-
She was invited to the dinner by her.
3.4 Pasado continuo pasivo
was / were + being + participio
-
The Secret Service agent was being followed by a strange-looking man.
-
When we returned to the hotel, the room was being cleaned.
-
We suddenly realised that we were being watched.
-
When he got home, dinner was being made by Carlos.
3.5 Presente perfecto pasivo
has / have + been + participio
-
The contract has been signed by Marcos.
-
A new medicine has been created in a laboratory in Sweden.
-
Strange things have been seen in the sky at night.
-
All the trees in the park have been planted recently.
-
This package has been opened at the transport company.
3.6 Pasado perfecto pasivo
had + been + participio
-
The policewoman could check that the envelope had already been opened.
-
Those races had been run by us.
-
His sister hadn't been taken to a dance for ages.
3.7 Futuro simple pasivo
will + be + participio
-
The negotiations will be postponed indefinitely.
-
Those two cars will be repaired this afternoon.
-
All those questions will be answered soon.
-
The car will be brought by Sara.
3.8 Futuro perfecto pasivo
will + have + been + participio
-
By tomorrow afternoon that door will be fixed, you'll see.
-
The road to the airport will have been repaired next Tuesday.
-
He will have forbidden drugs → Drugs will have been forbidden by him.
3.9 Pasiva con verbos modales
modal + be + participio (presente) / modal + have been + participio (pasado)
-
Alcohol mustn't be sold to minors.
-
Helmets must be worn at all times.
-
Nothing can be done now.
-
More books should have been bought for school.
-
That truck should have been scrapped by now.
-
That rude man shouldn't have been offered a job with us.
-
I know this red wine should be drunk cold.
3.10 Pasiva con «going to»
am / is / are + going to + be + participio
-
That cat is going to be killed by a lorry.
-
That dog is going to be adopted by a child.
-
I'm going to break the telephone → The telephone is going to be broken by me.
3.11 Pasiva con infinitivo y gerundio
-
They want the works to be done as soon as possible.
-
Robert expected to be helped by his brother.
-
Most people hate being kept waiting.
-
Some people love to be kept busy by their hobbies.
-
My friends don't like being told what to do.
4. Complemento agente: «by» frente a «for»
El agente (quien realiza la acción) va precedido de by, no de for.
-
The painting was painted by Francisco de Goya. (correcto)
-
The painting was painted for Francisco de Goya.(incorrecto en este contexto)
La preposición for indica beneficiario, no agente:
- Many things were done for her during the week. (en su beneficio)
5. Pasiva con verbos que tienen dos objetos
Cuando el verbo activo tiene objeto directo e indirecto, la pasiva puede formarse de dos maneras. La más frecuente en inglés es promover el objeto indirecto a sujeto.
Activa: She invited two friends to the dinner.
-
Pasiva 1 (objeto directo como sujeto): Two friends were invited to the dinner by her.
-
Pasiva 2 (objeto indirecto como sujeto): She was invited... (menos habitual aquí)
Activa: He told her the truth.
- Pasiva: The truth has been told to her / She has been told the truth.
Activa: They sent the documents.
- Pasiva: The documents were sent by the secretary yesterday afternoon.
6. Pasiva de verbos de percepción y opinión («reporting verbs»)
Con verbos como think, believe, say, know, suppose, expect, report, hay dos estructuras pasivas:
Estructura A: It is + participio + that + cláusula
- It is thought that the fugitive is somewhere in Asia.
Estructura B: Sujeto + is/are + participio + to + infinitivo
-
The fugitive is thought to be somewhere in Asia.
-
Tom Norton is thought to be somewhere in Europe.
Si el hecho se refiere al pasado (referido desde el presente), se usa to + have + participio:
-
This jewellery is supposed to have belonged to Queen Isabel.
-
Those two men are suspected to commit murder.
7. «Get» pasivo — pasiva informal
En inglés coloquial, get sustituye a be para expresar algo que le pasa al sujeto, a menudo de forma accidental o inesperada.
-
None of the passengers got hurt. (nadie resultó herido)
-
Ten cups got broken in transport. (se rompieron)
-
The people I knew have been fired. (formal) / ...have got fired. (informal)
8. Causativa: «have / get something done»
Expresa que el sujeto encarga a otra persona que haga algo (no lo hace él mismo).
Fórmula: have/get + objeto + participio
-
I have my hair cut every 6 weeks. (me cortan el pelo)
-
My sister is going to have it cut tomorrow.
-
I have my house cleaned twice a month.
No confundir con la pasiva normal: My hair was cut (se cortó) vs. I had my hair cut (mandé cortármelo).
9. Cuándo se omite el agente
El complemento con by se omite cuando:
-
El agente es desconocido: My car was stolen last night.
-
El agente es obvio por contexto: He was arrested. (por la policía, sobrentendido)
-
El agente es irrelevante: English is spoken all over the world.
-
Se usa by con people / someone (agente genérico): se omite.
10. Cómo transformar de activa a pasiva — Método paso a paso
-
El objeto directo de la activa pasa a ser el sujeto de la pasiva.
-
El verbo activo se reemplaza por el tiempo de «to be» equivalente + participio pasado.
-
El sujeto de la activa pasa a ser el complemento agente introducido por by (o se omite).
-
El pronombre cambia de forma de sujeto a objeto: he → him, she → her, they → them, we → us.
Ejemplo completo:
-
Activa: She invited two friends to the dinner.
-
Sujeto activo: she → by her
-
Objeto activo: two friends → sujeto pasivo
-
Tiempo: pasado simple → was/were
-
Pasiva: Two friends were invited to the dinner by her.
11. Tabla de participios irregulares clave
| Infinitivo | Pasado simple | Participio |
|---|---|---|
| write | wrote | written |
| steal | stole | stolen |
| break | broke | broken |
| take | took | taken |
| know | knew | known |
| see | saw | seen |
| send | sent | sent |
| build | built | built |
| run | ran | run |
| hit | hit | hit |
| blow | blew | blown |
| wear | wore | worn |
| drink | drank | drunk |
| forbid | forbade | forbidden |
| bite | bit | bitten |
| give | gave | given |
12. Errores frecuentes en examen
| Incorrecto | Correcto | Razón |
|---|---|---|
| The book was writed | was written | Participio irregular |
| The meal is being make | is being made | Participio de make |
| Will been postponed | will be postponed | will + be (no been) |
| Has being signed | Has been signed | been (no being) tras have |
| Is been followed | was being followed | Continuo pasivo: was/were + being |
| Were arrested by hooligans | Hooligans were arrested | El agente de la acción va en el sujeto pasivo |
| The reports must be finish | must be finished | Participio, no infinitivo |
| I had my hair cutted | I had my hair cut | cut es irregular (cut-cut-cut) |
Question tags.
Question tags (coletillas interrogativas)
Las question tags (también llamadas tag questions o coletillas) son breves preguntas añadidas al final de una oración. Sirven para pedir confirmación, expresar sorpresa o invitar al interlocutor a estar de acuerdo. Equivalen en español a construcciones como «¿verdad?", «¿no?", «¿no es así?", «¿a que sí?".
1. Regla fundamental de formación
La coletilla es SIEMPRE la inversa de la oración principal:
-
Si la oración es afirmativa → la coletilla es negativa.
-
Si la oración es negativa → la coletilla es positiva.
Estructura: auxiliar + pronombre
El pronombre de la coletilla repite siempre el sujeto de la oración principal, en forma de pronombre personal (nunca con nombre propio).
2. Cómo construir la coletilla paso a paso
-
Identifica el tiempo verbal de la oración principal.
-
Extrae el auxiliar de ese tiempo verbal (o usa do/does/did si no hay auxiliar).
-
Invierte la polaridad (afirmativa ↔ negativa).
-
Añade el pronombre sujeto equivalente al de la oración principal.
3. Question tags con los tiempos verbales principales
3.1 Presente simple
Si no hay auxiliar, se usa do (para I/you/we/they) o does (para he/she/it).
| Oración principal | Coletilla |
|---|---|
| She comes from Peru, | doesn't she? |
| Mary works in the market, | doesn't she? |
| Lisa likes pop music, | doesn't she? |
| Austin knows all the strategies, | doesn't he? |
| He speaks good English, | doesn't he? |
| They try to give their best, | don't they? |
| You want to go on holiday, | don't you? |
| She doesn't have a car, | does she? |
| They don't like us, | do they? |
| She never wears trendy clothes, | does she? |
Nunca → la coletilla es positiva con do/does.
She never wears… → does she? (la palabra never hace la frase negativa en sentido; coletilla positiva).
3.2 Pasado simple
Se usa did (afirmativo) o didn't (negativo) para todas las personas. Nunca se usa el verbo principal en la coletilla.
| Oración principal | Coletilla |
|---|---|
| My niece brought the cake, | didn't she? |
| He broke the window, | didn't he? |
| James brought some drinks, | didn't he? |
| Susan wrote these beautiful letters, | didn't she? |
| He moved abroad last winter, | didn't he? |
| They went farther than their village, | didn't they? |
| Mary didn't do her homework, | did she? |
| She didn't go with you, (negativa) | did she? |
3.3 Presente continuo (to be + -ing)
El auxiliar de la coletilla es am/is/are.
| Oración principal | Coletilla |
|---|---|
| You are studying Japanese, | aren't you? |
| They weren't playing football in the classroom, | were they? |
| David was trying to hide something, | wasn't he? |
3.4 Presente perfecto (have/has + participio)
El auxiliar de la coletilla es have/has.
| Oración principal | Coletilla |
|---|---|
| He has already arrived from Scotland, | hasn't he? |
| Mark**'s been** to Malaysia, | hasn't he? |
| He**'s been** writing that book for a long time, | hasn't he? |
| It**'s been** many years since we last saw each other, | hasn't it? |
| Susan has found a job, | hasn't she? |
| Sofia hasn't gone to the dentist yet, | has she? |
| You haven't done this before, | have you? |
| You have my bag, | don't you? |
| You have cleaned your bike, | haven't you? |
| You**'ve got** two dogs, | haven't you? |
| Joe hasn't got a pet snake, | has he? |
Atención: You have my bag, don't you? — Aquí have es verbo principal (posesión), no auxiliar perfecto, por eso la coletilla usa do.
3.5 Pasado perfecto (had + participio)
El auxiliar de la coletilla es had.
| Oración principal | Coletilla |
|---|---|
| We hadn't been here before, | had we? |
| He hadn't arrived yet, (negativa) | had he? |
3.6 Futuro simple (will)
| Oración principal | Coletilla |
|---|---|
| Tom and Mary will arrive soon, | won't they? |
| Tom won't be late, | will he? |
| You**'ll** do as you are told, | won't you? |
| Your uncle will pay for the damage, | won't he? |
| It will not rain tomorrow, | will it? |
| If he runs a lot, he**'ll** have an accident, | won't he? |
| You**'ll** do your homework, | won't you? |
3.7 Condicional (would)
| Oración principal | Coletilla |
|---|---|
| He wouldn't do this, | would he? |
| He could have bought a new car, | couldn't he? |
| We shouldn't have told him, | should we? |
3.8 Verbos modales (can, should, must, might…)
La coletilla usa el mismo modal.
| Oración principal | Coletilla |
|---|---|
| She can speak 4 languages, | can't she? |
| You can't speak French yet, | can you? |
| Tom should pass his exam, | shouldn't he? |
| We must do it together, | mustn't we? |
| We shouldn't park there, | should we? |
4. Casos especiales y reglas adicionales
4.1 «I am» → coletilla «aren't I»
Es la excepción más importante. Con I am (afirmativo), la coletilla no es am I not sino aren't I (contracción convencional).
-
I'm the person with the tickets, aren't I?
-
I'm clever, aren't I?
-
I'm starving, aren't I? (aunque aquí se usa aren't we con let's; ver §4.2)
-
We're late again, aren't we?
I'm (= I am) → aren't I? (nunca am I not? en uso informal estándar).
4.2 «Let's» → coletilla «shall we»
Con sugerencias que empiezan por Let's (= Let us), la coletilla es siempre shall we?
-
Let's go to the beach, shall we?
-
Let's have lunch, shall we?
-
Let's start, shall we?
4.3 Imperativo → coletilla «will you» (o «won't you»)
Con órdenes o peticiones en imperativo afirmativo, la coletilla es will you? (o won't you? para tono más suave).
-
Open the window, will you?
-
Be quiet, won't you?
Con imperativo negativo:
- Don't do that, will you?
4.4 Pronombres indefinidos negativos: «nobody», «nothing», «no one»
Cuando el sujeto es un indefinido negativo (nobody, nothing, no one, nobody), la coletilla es positiva y usa el pronombre they (para referentes a personas) o it (para cosas).
| Oración principal | Coletilla |
|---|---|
| Nobody understood that word, | did they? |
| Nobody asked for me, | did they? |
| Nobody understood the lesson, | did they? |
| Nothing can be done, | (→ can it?) |
La oración ya es negativa por «nobody/nothing», así que la coletilla va en positivo.
4.5 Pronombres indefinidos positivos: «everybody», «someone», «anyone»
Cuando el sujeto es everybody, someone, anyone, la coletilla usa they (plural de cortesía).
-
Everybody knows that, don't they?
-
Someone called, didn't they?
4.6 «There is / There are» → coletilla con «there»
Cuando el sujeto gramatical es there (existencial), la coletilla repite there, no it ni they.
| Oración principal | Coletilla |
|---|---|
| There were a lot of police officers at the door, | weren't there? |
| There wasn't any bread left, | was there? |
| There was no one there, (negativa lógica) | was there? |
4.7 «used to» → coletilla con «didn't»
Con used to, la coletilla usa didn't (igual que el pasado simple).
- She used to work here, didn't she?
5. Tablas resumen por auxiliar
Tabla 1: Auxiliares de tiempo
| Auxiliar en oración | Coletilla afirmativa | Coletilla negativa |
|---|---|---|
| am/is/are | isn't/aren't | is/are |
| was/were | wasn't/weren't | was/were |
| have/has | haven't/hasn't | have/has |
| had | hadn't | had |
| will/shall | won't/shan't | will/shall |
| would | wouldn't | would |
| do/does | don't/doesn't | do/does |
| did | didn't | did |
Tabla 2: Auxiliares modales
| Modal en oración | Coletilla afirmativa | Coletilla negativa |
|---|---|---|
| can | can't | can |
| could | couldn't | could |
| will | won't | will |
| would | wouldn't | would |
| should | shouldn't | should |
| must | mustn't | must |
| might | mightn't | might |
| ought to | oughtn't to | ought to |
6. El pronombre en la coletilla
La coletilla usa siempre un pronombre personal sujeto, aunque en la oración principal haya un sustantivo o nombre propio.
| Sujeto en la oración | Pronombre en coletilla |
|---|---|
| Tom / Mark / Luis | he |
| Mary / Sara / Anna | she |
| Tom and Mary / Sue and Alex | they |
| Mike (como posesión: Mike's Juan's employee) | he |
| the car / the house / the boiler | it |
| there (existencial) | there |
| I | I (solo en coletilla «aren't I») |
7. Función comunicativa: entonación
La entonación cambia el significado de la coletilla:
-
Entonación descendente (↓): El hablante ya sabe la respuesta y busca confirmación. (He's your brother, isn't he? ↓)
-
Entonación ascendente (↑): El hablante tiene genuina duda y espera una respuesta. (You've been here before, haven't you? ↑)
8. Errores frecuentes en examen
| Incorrecto | Correcto | Razón |
|---|---|---|
| She works here, isn't she? | doesn't she? | Presente simple → do/does |
| I'm clever, am I? | aren't I? | I am → aren't I (excepción) |
| Nobody called, didn't they? | did they? | nobody = negativo → coletilla positiva |
| Let's go, let's we? | shall we? | Let's → shall we |
| There were people, were there? | weren't there? | Afirmativa → negativa; there → there |
| She used to live here, used she? | didn't she? | used to → did/didn't |
| He moved, moved he? | didn't he? | Nunca verbo principal en la coletilla |
| Susan has found a job, haven't she? | hasn't she? | she → has/hasn't (3ª sing.) |
| Tom won't be late, won't he? | will he? | Negativa → coletilla positiva |
Estilo directo e indirecto.
Estilo directo e indirecto (Reported Speech)
1. Concepto y diferencia fundamental
El estilo directo reproduce exactamente las palabras de alguien, entre comillas:
She said, "I am tired."
El estilo indirecto (o reported speech) transmite esas palabras sin comillas, integrándolas en una oración subordinada con los cambios gramaticales necesarios:
She said that she was tired.
La transformación afecta a cuatro elementos: los tiempos verbales, los pronombres, los demostrativos/adverbios de lugar y tiempo y el orden de la oración.
2. Verbos introductores principales
| Verbo | Construcción | Uso típico |
|---|---|---|
| say | say (that) + oración | afirmaciones sin destinatario explícito |
| tell | tell + persona + (that) + oración | afirmaciones con destinatario |
| ask | ask + (persona) + if/whether/wh- | preguntas |
| order / command | order/command + persona + to + infinitivo | órdenes |
| advise | advise + persona + (not) to + infinitivo | consejos |
| warn | warn + persona + (not) to + infinitivo | advertencias |
| tell | tell + persona + (not) to + infinitivo | órdenes e instrucciones |
| inform | inform + persona + that | información formal |
| announce / explain / admit | + that + oración | según el matiz |
CRÍTICO — say vs. tell:
- She said me → INCORRECTO. Con destinatario: She told me.
- She said that → CORRECTO (sin destinatario o con to + persona: She said to me that).
3. Cambios de tiempo verbal (backshift)
Cuando el verbo introductor está en pasado (said, told, asked…), el tiempo del discurso subordinado retrocede un escalón hacia el pasado. Esto se llama backshift.
| Estilo directo | Estilo indirecto |
|---|---|
| Present simple ("I work") | Past simple (he said he worked) |
| Present continuous ("I am working") | Past continuous (he said he was working) |
| Present perfect ("I have finished") | Past perfect (he said he had finished) |
| Present perfect continuous ("I have been working") | Past perfect continuous (he said he had been working) |
| Past simple ("I went") | Past perfect (he said he had gone) |
| Past continuous ("I was working") | Past perfect continuous (he said he had been working) |
| Past perfect ("I had done") | Past perfect — sin cambio (he said he had done) |
| Future (will) | Conditional (would) |
| Future continuous (will be doing) | Conditional continuous (would be doing) |
| can | could |
| may | might |
| must | had to |
| shall | should |
| should / would / could / might | sin cambio |
3.1 Verbos modales en detalle
-
"I can help you." → He said he could help me.
-
"It may rain." → She said it might rain.
-
"You must leave." → He said I had to leave.
-
"I will call you." → She said she would call me.
-
"It might be good advice." → He said it might be good advice. (sin cambio: might no retrocede)
-
"I should study." → He said he should study. (sin cambio)
3.2 Excepciones al backshift
No se aplica el backshift cuando:
-
Lo dicho sigue siendo verdad en el presente: "The Earth is round." → He said the Earth is round. (o was, ambas válidas)
-
El verbo introductor está en presente (says, tells): She says she is tired.
-
El discurso se reporta inmediatamente después de producirse: "A moment ago I told my boss he'd have the report in the morning." ← La inmediatez puede permitir omitir el backshift completo.
4. Cambios de pronombres y posesivos
Los pronombres cambian para reflejar la nueva perspectiva de quien narra.
| Estilo directo | Estilo indirecto (3.ª persona) |
|---|---|
| I | he / she |
| me | him / her |
| my | his / her |
| we | they |
| us | them |
| our | their |
| you (al narrador) | I / me |
| you (a terceros) | he/she/they |
"I am going to my uncle's house." (Justin said)
→ Justin said that he would go to his uncle's house.
5. Cambios de adverbios y expresiones de tiempo y lugar
| Estilo directo | Estilo indirecto |
|---|---|
| now | then / at that moment |
| today | that day |
| yesterday | the day before / the previous day |
| tomorrow | the next day / the following day |
| last night | the night before / the previous night |
| last week | the week before / the previous week |
| next week | the following week / the week after |
| next month | the following month |
| ago | before |
| here | there |
| this | that |
| these | those |
| come | go |
"Come tomorrow." → She told me to come the next day.
"This chair is reserved." → The usher told me that chair was reserved.
"I saw Julia yesterday." → Katy told us she had seen Julia the day before.
6. Afirmaciones en estilo indirecto
Estructura: sujeto + said/told + (that) + oración subordinada (con backshift)
El nexo that es opcional pero habitual en registros formales.
Ejemplos:
-
"I'm a vegetarian." → I told the waiter I was a vegetarian.
-
"Dinner will be ready in 20 minutes." → The cook told me dinner would be ready in twenty minutes.
-
"We had a good time last night." → Francis said they had had a good time the night before.
-
"She was studying English." → He said she had been studying English.
-
"I have never been able to find a solution." → Sue said she had never been able to find a solution.
-
"I had already done this before." → He said he had already done that before. (past perfect: sin cambio)
7. Preguntas en estilo indirecto
Las preguntas indirectas pierden la inversión (el orden pasa a ser sujeto + verbo, como en una afirmación) y no llevan signo de interrogación.
7.1 Preguntas de sí/no (yes/no questions)
Se introduce con if o whether.
Estructura: asked + (persona) + if/whether + sujeto + verbo
-
"Can I smoke?" → Micky asked if he could smoke in that room then.
-
"Do you understand all the rules?" → He asked me if I understood all the rules.
-
"Did you see the car over there?" → Jerry asked me if I had seen the car over there.
-
"Do you have any milk?" → He asked if she had any milk in her fridge.
INCORRECTO: He asked me if could I smoke. (la inversión desaparece)
7.2 Preguntas con partícula interrogativa (wh- questions)
Se mantiene la partícula interrogativa, pero el orden es sujeto + verbo (sin inversión).
Estructura: asked + (persona) + wh- + sujeto + verbo
-
"Where is the train station?" → She asked me where the train station was.
-
"When will I see you again?" → She asked me when she would see me again.
-
"What is the matter?" → I asked the local cop what the matter was.
-
"How are you?" (Gabi shouted) → Gabi shouted how we were.
INCORRECTO: She asked me where was the train station. (la inversión persiste — error muy frecuente)
8. Órdenes, peticiones y consejos en estilo indirecto
Las órdenes e instrucciones (imperativo en estilo directo) se convierten en infinitivo con to (afirmativo) o not to + infinitivo (negativo).
Estructura: told/asked/advised/ordered + persona + (not) to + infinitivo
8.1 Órdenes afirmativas
-
"Don't move." → The captain told us not to move.
-
"Come tomorrow." → She told me to come the next day.
-
"Wait until I get back!" → She said to wait until she got back.
-
"Go for a walk every day." → The doctor advised me to go for a walk every day.
-
"Bring me the remote control." → I told my son to bring me the remote control.
8.2 Órdenes negativas
-
"Don't be late tomorrow." → She advised me not to be late the following day.
-
"Don't worry!" → Mom told me not to worry.
-
"Don't pretend to be interested." → She told me not to pretend to be interested.
-
"Don't stay at home!" → Rachel advised Sam not to stay at home.
8.3 Petición con ask
-
"Can you call me tomorrow?" → Laura asked me if I could call her the following day.
-
"I want you to do twenty push-ups." → The sergeant told me he wanted me to do 20 push-ups.
Recordar: told + persona + to (NO told to + persona; NO said + persona + to).
9. Oraciones condicionales en estilo indirecto
Las condicionales también siguen el backshift en la cláusula if.
| Tipo | Estilo directo | Estilo indirecto |
|---|---|---|
| 1.º real | "If it rains, I will stay." | He said if it rained, he would stay. |
| 2.º irreal | "If I were rich, I would travel." | She said if she were rich, she would travel. |
| 3.º contrafactual | "If I had known, I would have helped." | He said if he had known, he would have helped. |
Ejemplos de las preguntas del examen:
- "If the fires don't end, we won't have anywhere to go."
→ The native told me that if the fires didn't end, they wouldn't have anywhere to go.
- "If you don't control your dogs, I will take legal measures."
→ A neighbour shouted that if I didn't control my dogs, he would take legal action.
- "If you have money problems, you should tell me, and I'll lend it to you."
→ My mother told me that if I had money problems, I should tell her, and she would lend it to me.
10. Casos especiales y demostraciones frecuentes en examen
10.1 Frases con "going to"
- "I am going to have my hair cut tomorrow."
→ Joe said he was going to have his hair cut the next day.
- "I'm flying back to Japan tomorrow."
→ Miho said he was flying back to Japan the next day.
- "The meeting is going to start now."
→ The boss told us the meeting was going to start at that moment.
10.2 Reported speech con pensamiento (thought)
Cuando el verbo es think / thought en lugar de say/tell, se aplica la misma regla de backshift:
- "You will never see me here again."
→ He said we would never see him there again.
-
"Your aunt won't come here today." / I didn't think she… → would (backshift de will)
-
"I'm not even a Spanish citizen." / I thought… → you were (backshift de are)
10.3 Must → had to (en backshift)
-
"I must brush my teeth." → He said he had to brush his teeth.
-
"We must leave soon." → Jack said they had to leave soon.
10.4 Have to → had to
- "You have to select the right option." → I told him he had to select the right option.
10.5 Frases mixtas (imperativo + condicional)
-
"Study or you'll be grounded." → The father shouted at him to study or he would be grounded.
-
"Finish soon or you'll have to continue tomorrow." → He told me to finish soon or I'd have to continue the next day.
-
"Get off my land or my dogs will attack you." → The peasant told him to get off his land or his dogs would attack him.
11. Resumen visual: tabla maestra de transformaciones
| Elemento | Directo | Indirecto |
|---|---|---|
| Tiempo verbal | presente/pasado/futuro | retrocede un escalón |
| Pronombres | I, you, we… | he/she/they… (según contexto) |
| Lugar | here / this / these | there / that / those |
| Tiempo | now / today / yesterday / tomorrow | then / that day / the day before / the next day |
| Preguntas | inversión sujeto-auxiliar | orden afirmativo (sin inversión) |
| Imperativo + | V infinitivo | to + infinitivo |
| Imperativo – | Don't + V | not to + infinitivo |
| say vs. tell | say (that) | tell + persona + (that) |
12. Errores más frecuentes en examen
-
Usar said me en lugar de told me: incorrecto siempre.
-
Mantener la inversión en preguntas indirectas: asked me where was the station → INCORRECTO.
-
Usar not + infinitivo sin to en negaciones: told me not move → INCORRECTO; debe ser not to move.
-
No hacer backshift con will → would, can → could, must → had to.
-
Confundir previous y following: yesterday → the day before / the previous day (NO the day after); tomorrow → the next/following day (NO the previous day).
-
Cambiar pronombres incorrectamente: "I saw your cousins" (Jack dijo) → he had seen our cousins.
Used to, be used to y get used to.
Used to, be used to y get used to
Estas tres estructuras se confunden con facilidad porque comparten las palabras used y to, pero tienen significados, tiempos y construcciones gramaticales completamente distintos.
1. USED TO + infinitivo
1.1 Significado
Expresa un hábito o estado del pasado que ya no existe en el presente. Equivale en español a «solía + infinitivo» o «antes + imperfecto».
I used to smoke. → Antes fumaba / Solía fumar (ya no fumo).
We used to live in France. → Antes vivíamos en Francia (ya no).
El contraste con el presente es implícito o explícito:
She used to dance when she was a student. (ya no baila)
They used to go to the cinema every day. (ya no van)
1.2 Estructura
| Forma | Construcción | Ejemplo |
|---|---|---|
| Afirmativa | sujeto + used to + infinitivo | He used to play golf. |
| Negativa | sujeto + didn't use to + infinitivo | I didn't use to like maths. |
| Interrogativa | Did + sujeto + use to + infinitivo | Did you use to play chess? |
ATENCIÓN — error muy frecuente:
- En negativa e interrogativa, tras did/didn't, la forma es use to (NO used to), ya que el auxiliar did ya marca el pasado.
- INCORRECTO: Did you used to play? / I didn't used to go.
- CORRECTO: Did you use to play? / I didn't use to go.
1.3 Ejemplos del examen
-
They didn't use to dance salsa, but now they go to salsa clubs every weekend.
-
I didn't use to like maths when I was little, but I became a Maths teacher.
-
Before Covid-19 we used to go to the cinema quite often.
-
When we lived in Dublin, we used to walk to school.
-
What did you use to do after working?
-
Did you use to take the metro to work when you lived in Madrid?
1.4 Used to con verbos de estado
A diferencia del past continuous, used to admite verbos de estado:
Ted used to be my best friend. (correcto)
Here used to be an old coal mine by the river. (correcto)
Martha used to play the violin when she was younger.
2. BE USED TO + -ing / sustantivo
2.1 Significado
Expresa que algo es familiar, habitual o normal para alguien porque ya tiene experiencia con ello. No indica cambio: describe un estado de acostumbramiento ya conseguido. Equivale a «estar acostumbrado/a a».
I am used to waking up early. → Estoy acostumbrado a levantarme temprano (me resulta normal).
She's used to the noise. → Está acostumbrada al ruido.
2.2 Estructura
Fórmula: sujeto + BE (conjugado) + used to + -ing / sustantivo
-
El verbo be se conjuga en cualquier tiempo: am / is / are / was / were / will be / have been…
-
Después de to va siempre un gerundio (-ing) o un sustantivo (NUNCA un infinitivo).
| Persona/Tiempo | Ejemplo |
|---|---|
| Presente (1.ª) | I am used to running on asphalt. |
| Presente (3.ª) | He is used to working long hours. |
| Negativo | I*'m not used to** the heat.* |
| Pasado | We were used to the sunny weather. |
| Pasado negativo | We were not used to visiting museums. |
| Futuro | By the time Luis moves in, I will be used to living alone. |
2.3 Con sustantivo
Después de used to puede ir directamente un sustantivo:
It's too hot here. I*'m not used to** the heat.* → No estoy acostumbrado al calor.
She*'s used to** all the attention.* → Está acostumbrada a toda esa atención.
2.4 Ejemplos del examen
-
I am used to the smell of smoke because my husband smokes.
-
Mark gets so tired because he's not used to walking so much.
-
In this country we are not used to waiting in queues.
-
He doesn't care about his health. He's used to having no fish or vegetables for lunch.
-
They are used to working on weekends.
3. GET USED TO + -ing / sustantivo
3.1 Significado
Expresa el proceso de acostumbrarse a algo, el camino hacia la familiarización. Es dinámico (acción en curso o completada), mientras que be used to es estático (estado ya alcanzado). Equivale a «acostumbrarse a», «ir acostumbrándose a».
I*'m getting used to** waking up early.* → Me estoy acostumbrando a levantarme temprano (proceso en curso).
She got used to living alone after a year. → Se acostumbró a vivir sola (proceso completado).
3.2 Estructura
Fórmula: sujeto + GET (conjugado) + used to + -ing / sustantivo
-
El verbo get se conjuga en cualquier tiempo: get / gets / got / getting / will get / have got…
-
Igual que con be used to: después de to va gerundio o sustantivo.
| Tiempo | Ejemplo |
|---|---|
| Presente simple | It's hard to get used to all the new technology. |
| Presente continuo | I am getting used to studying hard. |
| Pasado simple | When I went to Mexico, I got used to spicy food. |
| Pasado continuo | He*'s getting used to** the new house.* |
| Infinitivo (tras modal) | You must get used to driving on the left. |
| Perfecto | After a year in Asturias, I*'ve got used to** the rain.* |
| Negativo | I could never get used to the way he did things. |
3.3 Ejemplos del examen
-
When I was living abroad, I had to get used to living in a different way.
-
Although I had never worked in an office before, I quickly got used to working at the bank.
-
It took him a long time to get used to living in such a cold climate.
-
The whole family moved to a flat and they had to get used to living in a smaller house.
-
After a year working in a shop, Andrew got used to dealing with people.
-
It's now hard for me to get used to working with the new operating system.
-
Mary couldn't get used to having noisy brothers and sisters.
-
Next week I'm starting a new job, so I am getting used to waking up early.
4. Tabla comparativa de las tres estructuras
| used to | be used to | get used to | |
|---|---|---|---|
| Tipo | Pasado habitual | Estado de familiaridad | Proceso de familiarización |
| Equivalente | solía / antes + imperfecto | estar acostumbrado/a a | acostumbrarse a |
| Tiempo verbal | Solo pasado | Cualquier tiempo de be | Cualquier tiempo de get |
| Tras to | Infinitivo | -ing o sustantivo | -ing o sustantivo |
| ¿Habla del presente? | No (hábito extinto) | Sí | Sí |
| ¿Dinámico o estático? | Estático (pasado) | Estático | Dinámico |
5. La trampa del infinitivo vs. el gerundio
Este es el error más frecuente en examen:
-
used to + infinitivo: She used to dance. ✓
-
be used to + -ing: She is used to dancing. ✓
-
get used to + -ing: She got used to dancing. ✓
INCORRECTO:
-
She is used to dance. ✗
-
She got used to dance. ✗
-
She used to dancing. ✗
La razón: en be/get used to, el to es una preposición, no la partícula del infinitivo. Las preposiciones van seguidas de gerundio o sustantivo en inglés.
6. Negación e interrogación de cada estructura
used to
| Correcto | Incorrecto | |
|---|---|---|
| Negación | I didn't use to like it. | I didn't used to like it. |
| Interrogación | Did you use to play? | Did you used to play? |
be used to
| Correcto | Incorrecto | |
|---|---|---|
| Negación | I*'m not used to** the noise.* | I'm not use to the noise. |
| Interrogación | Are you used to getting up early? | Are you use to getting up early? |
get used to
| Correcto | Incorrecto | |
|---|---|---|
| Negación | I can never get used to this. | I can never get use to this. |
| Interrogación | Did you get used to the rain? | Did you got used to the rain? |
7. Casos especiales y sutilezas
7.1 Would + infinitivo como alternativa
Para referirse a acciones habituales del pasado (no estados), would es intercambiable con used to:
We would go to the beach after school. ≈ We used to go to the beach after school.
Sin embargo, would NO sirve para estados: He used to be tall. ✓ / He would be tall. ✗
7.2 Usually (adverbio)
Usually es un adverbio de frecuencia del presente simple, NO sinónimo de used to:
I usually get up at 7. → Normalmente me levanto a las 7. (hábito presente)
I used to get up at 7. → Antes me levantaba a las 7. (hábito pasado, ya no)
En examen, las opciones usually, get used to, be used to y used to se presentan juntas. Identificar el contexto temporal es clave.
7.3 Secuencia de tiempos con be used to en pasado
We didn't use to spend so much money when we travelled, because we never used to stay in hotels.
(Segunda cláusula: used sin to — forma comprimida, válida cuando el complemento es recuperable del contexto)
7.4 Get used to en construcción con TO + infinitivo
Cuando get used to va precedido de una preposición o nexo que ya lleva to, el infinitivo completo aparece:
It took him a long time to get used to living in such a cold climate.
(Aquí el primer to es parte del infinitivo to get; el segundo to es la preposición de get used to)
8. Resumen mnémotécnico
| Pregunta clave | Estructura |
|---|---|
| ¿Hablamos de algo que se hacía antes y ya no? | used to + infinitivo |
| ¿Ya estamos acostumbrados a algo? | be used to + -ing/sustantivo |
| ¿Estamos en proceso de acostumbrarnos? | get used to + -ing/sustantivo |
Truco rápido: Si puedo sustituir la frase por «solía», uso used to + infinitivo. Si puedo sustituirla por «estar acostumbrado», uso be used to + -ing. Si puedo sustituirla por «acostumbrarse», uso get used to + -ing.
Preguntas y partículas interrogativas.
Preguntas y partículas interrogativas
1. Estructura general de las preguntas en inglés
En inglés, las preguntas directas siguen una estructura de inversión: el auxiliar precede al sujeto. Esta inversión es obligatoria y es uno de los errores más frecuentes para hispanohablantes.
1.1 Preguntas con verbo auxiliar (be, have) o modal
Cuando el verbo principal es be o cuando hay un auxiliar (modal, have, etc.), ese verbo se antepone al sujeto:
Afirmación: She is tired.
Pregunta: Is she tired?
Afirmación: They can swim.
Pregunta: Can they swim?
1.2 Preguntas con verbo léxico (do/does/did)
Cuando el verbo principal es léxico (no be ni auxiliar), se usa el auxiliar do/does/did para formar la pregunta. El verbo léxico va en infinitivo (sin conjugar).
| Tiempo | Auxiliar | Ejemplo |
|---|---|---|
| Presente simple (3.ª sg.) | does | Does she work here? |
| Presente simple (resto) | do | Do you like coffee? |
| Pasado simple | did | Did you see the film? |
INCORRECTO: Did you saw the film? / Did you understandood the question?
CORRECTO: Did you see the film? / Do you understand the question?
1.3 Preguntas con sujeto interrogativo (subject questions)
Cuando la partícula interrogativa es el sujeto de la oración, NO se usa do/does/did y el orden es igual que en una afirmación:
Who told you that story? (Who = sujeto; told = verbo en pasado directo, sin did)
What caused the noise? (What = sujeto)
Who makes the best cakes? (Who = sujeto)
Who paid the bill? (Who = sujeto)
INCORRECTO: Who did tell you that story?
CORRECTO: Who told you that story?
2. Las partículas interrogativas (question words / wh- words)
2.1 Tabla completa
| Partícula | Significado | Pregunta por |
|---|---|---|
| What | Qué / Cuál | cosas, información en general |
| Who | Quién (sujeto) | personas (sujeto) |
| Whom | A quién / Con quién (objeto) | personas (objeto, formal) |
| Whose | De quién / Cuyo | posesión |
| Which | Cuál / Qué (con elección limitada) | selección de un conjunto definido |
| When | Cuándo | tiempo |
| Where | Dónde | lugar |
| Why | Por qué | causa, razón |
| How | Cómo / Cuánto | manera, grado, cantidad |
3. Uso detallado de cada partícula
3.1 WHAT — Qué / Cuál
Se usa para preguntar por cosas o información en general, sin conjunto limitado de opciones.
-
What is your name? → ¿Cómo te llamas?
-
What is your telephone number? → ¿Cuál es tu número de teléfono?
-
What did you do yesterday night? → ¿Qué hiciste anoche?
-
What did you find down there? → ¿Qué encontraste ahí abajo?
-
What caused the noise? (sujeto — sin did)
-
What kind of information does the police officer need? → ¿Qué tipo de información necesita?
-
What time is it? → ¿Qué hora es?
-
What time does your flight leave? → ¿A qué hora sale tu vuelo?
What vs. Which: What se usa sin conjunto definido; Which implica elección entre opciones conocidas o limitadas.
- What do you want to drink? (bebida en general)
- Which do you want, tea or coffee? (dos opciones concretas)
3.2 WHO — Quién (sujeto) / WHOM — A quién (objeto)
Who pregunta por personas y actúa como sujeto o como objeto en inglés informal.
Whom es la forma de objeto (formal o escrita).
-
Who is cleaning the house? (Who = sujeto) → ¿Quién está limpiando la casa?
-
Who told you that story? (Who = sujeto)
-
Who else came with you? → ¿Quién más vino contigo?
-
Who makes the best cakes? (Who = sujeto)
-
Whom did you have dinner with, last night? (Whom = objeto de with, formal)
-
Whom did you see at the party? (objeto directo formal)
En inglés coloquial, who sustituye a whom en posición de objeto:
Who did you speak to? (coloquial) = Whom did you speak to? (formal)
En examen de oposiciones se acepta tanto who como whom para objetos, pero si la pregunta incluye ambos como opción, whom es el objeto formal.
3.3 WHOSE — De quién (posesión)
Pregunta por el poseedor de algo. Puede ir solo o como determinante + sustantivo.
-
Whose car is that? Is it yours? → ¿De quién es ese coche?
-
Whose motorcycle is that? → ¿De quién es esa moto?
-
Whose are those pants? → ¿De quién son esos pantalones?
-
Someone has left a wallet here. Whose wallet is it? → ¿De quién es?
ATENCIÓN — Whose vs. Who's:
- Whose = de quién (posesión)
- Who's = who is / who has (contracción)
- Who's Isaac Newton? → ¿Quién es Isaac Newton?
- Whose car is that? → ¿De quién es ese coche?
3.4 WHICH — Cuál / Qué (entre opciones limitadas)
Se usa cuando se selecciona de un conjunto definido o limitado de opciones. Puede ir solo o como determinante.
-
Which do you like better, teddy bears or toy cars? (dos opciones)
-
Which of these restaurants is the best? (conjunto conocido)
-
Which book do you like best, this one or the other one?
-
Which countries would you like to visit with your tiny budget?
-
Which finger do you use to press the mouse button?
-
Which ice-cream do you want?
-
Are you able to tell me which of these books is yours?
3.5 WHEN — Cuándo
Pregunta por tiempo (momento, fecha, hora).
-
When do you take vacations?
-
When does the festival begin?
-
He asked me when they were arriving. (indirecta)
-
I remember the time when we all went on a picnic. (relativo temporal)
-
Do you remember the time when we were on the beach?
3.6 WHERE — Dónde
Pregunta por lugar.
-
Where do you live?
-
Where does this guy come from?
-
Where did you find that? In the garage?
-
Where do they go to every week?
-
Where are you going so quickly?
-
The shop where she bought that dress is on that corner. (relativo de lugar)
-
The restaurant where we had dinner is closed on Mondays. (relativo)
-
The roundabout where we had the accident is being rebuilt. (relativo)
3.7 WHY — Por qué
Pregunta por la causa o razón.
-
Why can't Laura buy here? → ¿Por qué no puede comprar Laura aquí?
-
Why does she go so soon? → ¿Por qué se va tan pronto?
Why vs. Where: En examen aparece el clásico error de confundir why (causa) con where (lugar). Prestar atención al contexto.
3.8 HOW — Cómo / De qué manera
How sola pregunta por el modo o manera. Combinada con adjetivos o adverbios crea partículas compuestas de gran importancia en examen:
-
How do you like this Yorkshire pudding? → ¿Qué te parece este Yorkshire pudding? (opinión/valoración)
-
How fast do you think you can run? → ¿Qué tan rápido crees que puedes correr?
-
How good are you at basketball? → ¿Cómo se te da el baloncesto?
-
Will you do this for me? (con auxiliar will — petición)
4. Partículas interrogativas compuestas con HOW
Estas combinaciones son muy frecuentes en examen y requieren memorización precisa.
| Partícula | Pregunta por | Ejemplo |
|---|---|---|
| How much | cantidad (incontable) / precio | How much does it cost? |
| How many | cantidad (contable) | How many people were there? |
| How long | duración / longitud | How long has she been working? |
| How often | frecuencia | How often do you wear jeans? |
| How old | edad | How old are you? |
| How far | distancia | How far is it from here? |
| How tall / high | altura (personas/edificios) | How tall are you? / How high is the tower? |
| How wide | anchura | How wide is the terrace? |
| How fast | velocidad | How fast can you run? |
| How well | calidad de ejecución | How well do you speak English? |
4.1 How much vs. How many
La distinción fundamental es la contabilidad del sustantivo:
| Sustantivo | Partícula | Ejemplo | |
|---|---|---|---|
| Incontable | water, money, milk, sugar, traffic, time, grain | How much | How much water do you drink? |
| Contable (plural) | people, books, countries, brothers, motorcycles | How many | How many books did you buy? |
ATENCIÓN:
- How much money ✓ / How many money ✗
- How many people ✓ / How much people ✗
- How much time ✓ (time = incontable en este sentido) / How many time ✗
- How much traffic ✓ / How many traffic ✗
4.2 How long — duración o longitud
-
Duración: How long have you been doing this job? → ¿Cuánto tiempo llevas haciendo este trabajo?
-
Longitud: How long is the River Amazon? → ¿Cómo de largo es el Amazonas?
-
How long has she been looking for your keys?
-
How long did the show last?
-
How long have you been a policeman?
How long con el present perfect o present perfect continuous pregunta por la duración de una acción que empezó en el pasado y continúa:
How long have you been waiting? (no: How many time have you been waiting?)
4.3 How often — frecuencia
-
How often do you wear jeans?
-
How often do you go to the doctor? Once? More than twice per week?
4.4 How old — edad
-
How old are you?
-
How old is your car?
En inglés NO se dice What years has your car? ni What age has your car? — son calcos del español.
4.5 How tall vs. How high
-
How tall: para personas y objetos verticales de altura humana: How tall are you?
-
How high: para edificios, montañas, torres: How high is the Empire State Building? / How high is the bell tower?
4.6 How wide — anchura
- The terrace is ten metres long, but how wide is it?
INCORRECTO: how width is it / what wide is it
5. Orden de la pregunta directa: resumen
| Pregunta | Partícula | Aux. | Sujeto | V. principal |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| What time does your flight leave? | What time | does | your flight | leave |
| How many books did you buy? | How many books | did | you | buy |
| Where did you find that? | Where | did | you | find |
| How long have you been working? | How long | have | you | been working |
Subject question (sin aux. do/did):
| Pregunta | Partícula-Sujeto | V. principal |
|---|---|---|
| Who told you that? | Who | told |
| What caused the noise? | What | caused |
| Who makes the best cakes? | Who | makes |
6. Preguntas indirectas (embedded questions)
Cuando una pregunta se integra dentro de otra oración (tras Do you know…, Could you tell me…, I wonder…), se pierde la inversión y el orden pasa a ser sujeto + verbo, igual que en una afirmación. No hay signo de interrogación si la oración principal es afirmativa.
Could you please tell me what time the next train arrives?
(NO: what time does the next train arrive)
Do you know what this is about?
(NO: what is this about)
Are you able to tell me which of these books is yours?
Could you tell me who told you all that?
Does the forensic know what caused the death? (subject question — sin inversión ni did, como en directa)
7. Pronombres relativos como partículas (uso doble)
Algunas partículas interrogativas también funcionan como pronombres relativos que introducen cláusulas subordinadas dentro de una oración:
| Relativo | Función | Ejemplo |
|---|---|---|
| who | sujeto (personas) | The man who called me is a lawyer. |
| whom | objeto (personas, formal) | The ones whom we saw earlier. |
| whose | posesión | The dog whose owner left it alone. |
| which | sujeto u objeto (cosas) | Luke has a van which is too big for him. |
| where | lugar | The shop where she bought the dress. |
| when | tiempo | The time when we went on a picnic. |
ATENCIÓN — which vs. where en cláusulas de lugar:
- The roundabout where we had the accident. ✓ (lugar: where)
- The roundabout which we had the accident. ✗ (which no introduce lugar sin preposición)
8. Which sugar / What sugar — casos especiales de determinante
En la pregunta "Which sugar would you like in your coffee?" (respuesta correcta en el examen: C/Which), se usa which porque se selecciona entre variedades conocidas o implícitas de azúcar.
Con what: "What kind of sugar do you want?" es posible, pero "How much sugar?" (cantidad) es diferente.
9. Errores frecuentes en examen
- Mantener el orden afirmativo en preguntas directas:
-
INCORRECTO: Do you the question understand?
-
CORRECTO: Do you understand the question?
- Usar did con verbo en pasado:
-
INCORRECTO: Did you saw the film?
-
CORRECTO: Did you see the film?
- Confundir how many con how much con incontables:
-
INCORRECTO: How many money do you have?
-
CORRECTO: How much money do you have?
- Usar who's en vez de whose (posesión):
-
INCORRECTO: Who's car is that? (= Who is car)
-
CORRECTO: Whose car is that?
- Usar who en lugar de whom en objeto formal:
-
Coloquial: Who did you speak to?
-
Formal: Whom did you speak to? / To whom did you speak?
- Mantener inversión en preguntas indirectas:
-
INCORRECTO: Could you tell me what time does the train leave?
-
CORRECTO: Could you tell me what time the train leaves?
- Usar how long time en lugar de how long:
-
INCORRECTO: How long time have you been working?
-
CORRECTO: How long have you been working?
- Subject question con do/did innecesario:
-
INCORRECTO: Who did tell you that story?
-
CORRECTO: Who told you that story?
10. Resumen de partículas: guía rápida de elección
| Quiero preguntar por… | Uso… | Ejemplo |
|---|---|---|
| Cosa (sin límite de opciones) | What | What do you want? |
| Cosa (entre opciones definidas) | Which | Which one do you prefer? |
| Persona (sujeto) | Who | Who called? |
| Persona (objeto, formal) | Whom | Whom did you see? |
| Posesión | Whose | Whose is this? |
| Lugar | Where | Where do you live? |
| Tiempo (momento) | When | When does it start? |
| Causa | Why | Why are you late? |
| Modo | How | How do you do it? |
| Precio / cantidad incontable | How much | How much is it? |
| Cantidad contable | How many | How many are there? |
| Duración | How long | How long did it take? |
| Frecuencia | How often | How often do you go? |
| Edad | How old | How old is she? |
| Altura (persona) | How tall | How tall are you? |
| Altura (edificio/montaña) | How high | How high is it? |
| Anchura | How wide | How wide is it? |
| Velocidad | How fast | How fast can you go? |
Preposiciones.
Preposiciones en inglés
Una preposición es una palabra invariable que establece una relación entre dos elementos de la oración: normalmente entre un nombre (o pronombre) y otro elemento. Siempre va seguida de un sustantivo, pronombre o gerundio — nunca de un infinitivo.
1. Preposiciones de tiempo
1.1 IN, ON, AT (tiempo)
Estas tres preposiciones se aplican siguiendo la regla del «embudo»: de más general a más concreto.
| Preposición | Uso | Ejemplos |
|---|---|---|
| IN | Meses, años, décadas, siglos, estaciones, partes del día (morning/afternoon/evening) | in May, in 1963, in the 20th century, in winter, in the morning |
| ON | Días de la semana, fechas concretas, mañanas/tardes de un día específico | on Monday, on 25th July, on Friday morning, on my birthday |
| AT | Horas exactas, momentos puntuales del día, ciertas festividades | at 8 o'clock, at midnight, at noon, at Christmas, at Easter, at the weekend (BrE) |
Atención: En inglés americano se usa on the weekend; en inglés británico, at the weekend. En exámenes de Policía Nacional se acepta ambas formas, pero la más frecuente en los tests es at the weekend / at Christmas / at Easter.
Casos especiales con «the weekend»
-
I don't wake up early at the weekend. (BrE)
-
I have to do my homework over the weekend. — over también es correcto para «durante el fin de semana».
La regla de las partes del día
-
in the morning / in the afternoon / in the evening
-
Excepción: at night (no «in the night» en sentido general)
-
Si el día está especificado: on Monday morning, on Friday afternoon
1.2 FOR, SINCE, DURING, AGO
| Preposición | Uso | Ejemplo |
|---|---|---|
| FOR | Duración de tiempo (responde «¿cuánto tiempo?») | I have been here for three years. |
| SINCE | Punto de inicio (responde «¿desde cuándo?») | She hasn't come since last April. |
| DURING | A lo largo de un período (sin precisar duración exacta) | He slept during the film. / It's impossible to sleep during the day. |
| AGO | Tiempo transcurrido hacia el pasado (siempre con Past Simple) | She called me two hours ago. |
Trampa frecuente: «He had only been at the company for 2 months» → duración → for. «She hasn't seen her sister since last April» → punto de inicio → since.
1.3 UNTIL / TILL y BY
-
Until/till = «hasta» (límite temporal): Wait until I arrive.
-
By = «para», «a más tardar»: Finish it by Friday.
1.4 BEFORE / AFTER
Se usan sin preposición adicional:
- The lecture will take place right after the tutorial. (nunca «after of»)
1.5 SINCE y AS como conjunciones causales
Además de su uso temporal, since y as funcionan como conjunciones causales con el significado de «dado que / ya que / puesto que». En este uso NO van asociadas a un punto de inicio temporal:
| Uso | Ejemplo |
|---|---|
| since (causal) | Since you are already here, you might as well help. (Ya que estás aquí, bien puedes ayudar.) |
| as (causal) | As it was raining, we decided to stay indoors. (Como llovía, decidimos quedarnos dentro.) |
Contraste temporal vs. causal:
- I haven't seen her since 2020. → temporal (punto de inicio; va con Present Perfect)
- Since she was ill, she couldn't attend. → causal (dado que; puede ir con cualquier tiempo)
- I've studied hard as I want to pass. → causal (porque / ya que)
2. Preposiciones de lugar y posición
2.1 IN, ON, AT (lugar)
| Preposición | Uso | Ejemplos |
|---|---|---|
| IN | Interior de un espacio cerrado, ciudades, países, continentes, océanos | in the box, in London, in Spain, in the pool, in the park, in the world |
| ON | Superficie de contacto, plantas de edificios, medios de transporte públicos (avión, autobús, tren), islas, calles | on the table, on the third floor, on the bus, on the wall, on the radio, on the phone, on the left/right |
| AT | Punto concreto, lugar específico (edificios, eventos, instituciones), direcciones | at the door, at the station, at home, at work, at university, at the cinema, at the airport, at the end of the street |
Casos especiales frecuentes en examen
-
at home (nunca «in home»)
-
at work / at university (sin artículo): Lucy is studying at university.
-
in the world (no «of the world»): the tallest man in the world
-
on the radio / on the phone / on the internet: medios y canales de comunicación
-
in the morning/afternoon pero on Monday morning
-
on the first/third floor (planta de un edificio): Their office is on the third floor.
-
at the end of (al final de): located at the end of the street
-
Verbos de llegada: arrive in (ciudades/países) / arrive at (lugares concretos): When I arrived in Paris... / We arrived at the cinema.
-
get to (llegar a): We got to the hotel.
2.2 Preposiciones de posición relativa
| Preposición | Significado | Ejemplo |
|---|---|---|
| above | por encima de (sin contacto) | The plane flew above the clouds. |
| below | por debajo de (sin contacto) | The temperature is below zero. / the flat below |
| over | por encima de / cubriendo | the bridge over the river |
| under / beneath / underneath | debajo de | The cat sleeps under the bed. |
| on top of | encima de (en contacto) | the book on top of the box |
| in front of | delante de | Don't do that in front of the children. |
| behind | detrás de | Mike was sitting in front of me, Jules was sitting behind me. |
| next to / beside | al lado de | The coffee machine is next to the exit door. |
| near | cerca de (no «near to» ni «near of») | near the supermarket |
| opposite | enfrente de (no «opposite of») | My house is opposite the park. |
| between | entre (dos elementos) | Andorra is between France and Spain. |
| among | entre (más de dos) | among friends |
| inside | dentro de (énfasis en el interior) | The dog is inside the box. |
| outside | fuera de | outside the building |
| around / round | alrededor de | The wall was built round the town. |
| along | a lo largo de | They walked along the path. |
| across | de un lado al otro | They swam across the river. |
| through | a través de (de principio a fin) | Book our rooms through our web page. |
| by / beside | junto a (cerca de) | Mr González sits by the balcony. |
Errores frecuentes:
- «in front» sin «of» es incorrecto cuando va seguido de un sustantivo: siempre in front of + sustantivo.
- «below of», «above of», «under of», «beside of», «next of», «near of» → NUNCA se añade «of» a estas preposiciones.
- opposite no lleva «of»: opposite the bank (correcto); «opposite of the bank» (incorrecto).
- between → nunca «between of».
2.3 Preposiciones de movimiento y dirección
| Preposición | Significado | Ejemplo |
|---|---|---|
| to | hacia un destino (con verbos de movimiento) | go to the cinema, go to school |
| into | movimiento hacia dentro | I'm going into my room. |
| onto | movimiento hacia una superficie | The cat jumped onto the roof. |
| out of | movimiento desde dentro hacia fuera | Take it out of your pocket. |
| from | procedencia/origen | She comes from Spain. |
| towards / toward | en dirección a (sin llegar necesariamente) | He began moving towards the town. |
| away from | alejándose de | Your place isn't that far away from here. |
| through | a través de | Walk through the park. |
| along | a lo largo de | Walk along the path. |
| across | cruzando de lado a lado | Swim across the river. |
| past | pasando junto a, más allá de | Walk past the bank. |
| around / round | dando la vuelta | Walk around the lake. |
Medios de transporte
-
by + medio de transporte (sin artículo): by car, by bus, by train, by plane, by bike, by sea
-
on foot: a pie
-
Excepciones con «in»: in a car / in a taxi (cuando se sube como pasajero en vehículo privado)
Your place isn't that far away from here; you can go on foot.
3. Preposiciones dependientes de verbos
Muchos verbos en inglés exigen una preposición fija («preposition collocations»). Memorizarlas es esencial.
3.1 Verbos + preposición (selección de alta frecuencia en examen)
| Verbo | Preposición | Ejemplo |
|---|---|---|
| agree with | with (persona) | I agree with Martha. |
| agree on | on (tema) | They agreed on the price. |
| agree to | to (propuesta) | They agreed to share expenses. |
| apologize for | for | I'm sorry for not writing sooner. |
| apply for | for | apply for a job |
| arrive at/in | at (lugar concreto), in (ciudad/país) | arrived at the cinema / arrived in Paris |
| ask for | for | ask for information |
| belong to | to | Who does this cat belong to? |
| believe in | in | believe in God |
| consist of | of | consist of three parts |
| congratulate on | on | congratulate her on her success |
| depend on | on | It depends on the weather. |
| dream of / about | of / about | dream of success |
| fall in love with | in ... with | I have fallen in love with her. |
| hear from | from | I haven't heard from him. |
| hear of / about | of / about | I've heard about it. |
| insist on | on | He insisted on going back. |
| interested in | in | Are you interested in working here? |
| know about | about | Do you know anything about this case? |
| laugh at | at | Don't laugh at her. |
| listen to | to | I listened to the band. |
| look at | at | Look at this picture. |
| look for | for | look for the keys |
| pay by | by (método de pago) | I'd like to pay by cheque. |
| put the blame on | on | Don't put the blame on me. |
| speak / talk about | about | What were they speaking about? |
| speak / talk to | to | Who were your parents talking to? |
| stop from | from + gerundio | stop him from leaving |
| succeed in | in | succeed in passing the exam |
| taste of | of | It tastes of cheese. |
| thank for | for | I thanked him for the present. |
| think about / of | about / of | I'm thinking about moving. / I would never think of going there. |
| wait for | for | Wait for me at the front door. |
| worry about | about | Don't worry about it. |
3.2 Verbos + preposición + gerundio
Cuando la preposición va seguida de un verbo, este debe ir en gerundio (-ing):
-
He insisted on going back.
-
We are thinking about moving to Germany.
-
I would never think of going there.
-
I tried to stop the fox by putting a fence.
-
I'm sorry for not writing sooner.
4. Preposiciones dependientes de adjetivos
| Adjetivo | Preposición | Ejemplo |
|---|---|---|
| good at | at | Adam is very good at telling jokes. |
| bad at | at | I'm bad at maths. |
| interested in | in | interested in working here |
| afraid of | of | afraid of spiders |
| proud of | of | proud of his son |
| fond of | of | fond of music |
| aware of | of | be aware of the risks |
| sorry for / about | for/about | I'm sorry for the trouble. |
| responsible for | for | responsible for the accident |
| different from | from | different from what I expected |
| similar to | to | similar to mine |
| married to | to | married to a doctor |
| nervous about | about | nervous about the exam |
| sure about/of | about/of | sure about the answer |
| keen on | on | keen on cooking |
| fed up with | with | fed up with waiting |
5. Preposiciones dependientes de sustantivos
| Sustantivo | Preposición | Ejemplo |
|---|---|---|
| chance of | of + gerundio | chances of getting a promotion |
| interest in | in | interest in science |
| reason for | for | the reason for his absence |
| idea of | of | the idea of living abroad |
| time for | for | It's time for the news. |
| need for | for | the need for change |
| increase in | in | a significant increase in crime rates |
| rise in | in | a rise in unemployment |
| doubt about | about | There is no doubt about it. |
6. Expresiones fijas con preposición
Existe un grupo de expresiones idiomáticas que el examen repite con frecuencia:
| Expresión | Traducción | Ejemplo |
|---|---|---|
| by mistake | por error | I sent that email by mistake. |
| by chance | por casualidad | by any chance |
| by heart | de memoria | learn by heart |
| on purpose | a propósito | Did you do it on purpose? |
| on time | a tiempo, puntual | arrive on time |
| in time | a tiempo (antes de que sea tarde) | arrive in time to catch the train |
| on holiday | de vacaciones | I usually go on holiday in July. |
| on the radio/phone/TV | por la radio/teléfono/televisión | I listened to it on the radio. |
| on foot | a pie | go on foot |
| at home / at work / at school | en casa/trabajo/colegio | She's at home. |
| in the end | al final, finalmente | In the end, we decided to stay. |
| at the end (of) | al final (de, ubicación) | at the end of the street |
| in the morning/afternoon/evening | por la mañana/tarde/noche | in the morning |
| at night | por la noche | at night |
| at the moment | en este momento | at the moment |
| for a drink | tomar algo | go for a drink |
| for a walk | dar un paseo | go for a walk |
| in love with | enamorado de | fall in love with |
| out of | fuera de / sin | out of my pocket / out of stock |
| in front of | delante de | in front of the children |
| by + medio de pago | mediante | pay by card/cheque/cash |
7. Preposiciones al final de frase
En inglés es perfectamente correcto (y muy habitual) terminar una frase con una preposición, especialmente en preguntas y oraciones de relativo:
-
Who does this cat belong to?
-
Who were your parents talking to?
-
Who was this painting created by?
-
What were that group of people speaking about?
8. Resumen esquemático: IN / ON / AT
TIEMPO LUGAR
IN → meses, años, estaciones, partes del día → ciudades, países, interiores
ON → días, fechas, mañanas/tardes específicas → superficies, plantas, medios
AT → horas, momentos puntuales, festividades → puntos concretos, instituciones
9. Errores más comunes (lista roja)
-
«in home» → correcto: at home
-
«near to» / «near of» → correcto: near
-
«next» sin «to» → correcto: next to
-
«opposite of» → correcto: opposite
-
«below of» / «above of» / «under of» → correcto: below / above / under
-
«in front» sin «of» cuando hay sustantivo → correcto: in front of
-
«between of» → correcto: between
-
«besides» (= además de) ≠ beside (= al lado de)
-
«arrived to» → correcto: arrived in (ciudad) / arrived at (lugar)
-
«borrow» sin preposición y «lend» sin preposición funciona, pero «learn from»
Preguntas indirectas y sugerencias.
Preguntas indirectas y sugerencias en inglés
PARTE I — Preguntas indirectas (Indirect / Embedded Questions)
1. ¿Qué es una pregunta indirecta?
Una pregunta indirecta (también llamada embedded question) no se formula de manera directa, sino que se integra dentro de otra oración: una pregunta principal más formal o educada, o una oración declarativa.
Pregunta directa: Where does she work?
Pregunta indirecta: Could you tell me where she works?
El cambio fundamental es el orden de las palabras: en la pregunta indirecta se usa el orden de la oración declarativa (Sujeto + Verbo), no el orden invertido de la pregunta directa.
2. Estructura de las preguntas indirectas
2.1 Con partícula interrogativa (wh-words)
Frase introductoria + wh-word + SUJETO + VERBO (orden afirmativo)
| Pregunta directa | Pregunta indirecta |
|---|---|
| Where is she? | Do you know where she is? |
| What time is it? | Can you tell me what the time is? |
| How old is he? | Do you know how old he is? |
| What caused the fire? | Do you know what caused the fire? |
| Where did she go? | His mother wanted to know where she had gone. |
| How did she get home? | I wonder how she got home. |
| When will she try again? | I wonder when she will try to steal again. |
| How many people bought it? | Nobody could say how many people have bought that. |
Regla de oro: Después de la partícula interrogativa NO se invierte el sujeto y el auxiliar. Nunca se pone «did» ni «does» en la pregunta indirecta cuando ya existe la partícula.
Incorrecto: Do you know where does she work?
Correcto: Do you know where she works?
Incorrecto: Do you know what did cause the fire?
Correcto: Do you know what caused the fire?
2.2 Con IF o WHETHER (sí/no)
Cuando la pregunta directa original no tiene partícula interrogativa (respuesta sí/no), la pregunta indirecta usa if o whether:
Frase introductoria + IF / WHETHER + SUJETO + VERBO (orden afirmativo)
| Pregunta directa | Pregunta indirecta |
|---|---|
| Will he come? | Do you know whether he will come or not? |
| Did she go out? | Do you know if she went out last night? |
| Does this bus go to the airport? | Can you tell me if this bus goes to the airport? |
| Are they coming? | I guess you already know if they are coming or not. |
| Do any of those pens write? | Could you tell me if any of those pens actually write? |
Whether tiene un registro ligeramente más formal. Ambas son correctas.
3. Frases introductorias más habituales
Las preguntas indirectas aparecen después de estas expresiones. Su presencia obliga a usar el orden declarativo:
Preguntas:
-
Do you know...?
-
Can / Could you tell me...?
-
Would you tell me...?
-
Do you have any idea...?
-
Do you happen to know...?
-
Does he happen to know...?
-
Could you show me...?
-
Can you remember...?
-
Do you remember...?
Declarativas (I wonder, I know, etc.):
-
I wonder...
-
I know...
-
I can't imagine...
-
I can imagine...
-
Nobody knew...
-
Nobody could say...
-
Please share with me...
-
His mother wanted to know...
-
I don't get it...
4. Concordancia de tiempos en preguntas indirectas
Cuando la frase introductoria está en pasado, los tiempos verbales de la pregunta indirecta retroceden (backshift):
| Tiempo directo | Tiempo en indirecta |
|---|---|
| Present Simple (works) | Past Simple (worked) |
| Present Continuous (is working) | Past Continuous (was working) |
| Past Simple (worked) | Past Perfect (had worked) |
| Will (will come) | Would (would come) |
| Present Perfect (has gone) | Past Perfect (had gone) |
Ejemplo:
-
Where has he gone? → His mother wanted to know where he had gone.
-
When will she try again? → I wonder when she will try to steal from us again. (con «wonder» en presente no es obligatorio el backshift)
5. Preguntas indirectas con WHO como sujeto
Cuando who es el sujeto de la pregunta incrustada, el orden NO cambia porque ya es declarativo:
-
Who stole the money? → I wonder who has stolen the money from the safety box.
-
Who donated the money? → We don't really know who donated the money.
-
Who is singing? → Do you know who is singing?
La prueba: si who realiza la acción (sujeto), el verbo va en tercera persona del singular cuando corresponde.
6. Preguntas indirectas con WHAT como objeto del verbo
Cuando what es objeto (no sujeto), la oración usa el orden declarativo:
-
What did the Principal say? → Did you hear what the Principal said?
-
What is this about? → Do you know what this is about?
-
What did he put it? → I know where he has put it.
PARTE II — Sugerencias (Making Suggestions)
7. Estructuras para hacer sugerencias
En inglés existen varias fórmulas para proponer una actividad o dar un consejo. Se distinguen por el nivel de implicación del hablante y la forma verbal que les sigue.
7.1 WHY DON'T WE / WHY DON'T YOU + infinitivo sin TO
Se usa para sugerir o proponer algo de forma amistosa.
Why don't + SUJETO + infinitivo sin TO?
-
Why don't we go to play basketball?
-
Why don't you come with us to the cinema?
-
Why don't we meet outside the station?
-
Why don't you shut up and leave me alone?
Trampa frecuente: «Why you don't» (orden incorrecto). La negación va dentro del auxiliar: Why don't you...
7.2 HOW ABOUT / WHAT ABOUT + gerundio (-ING)
Se usa para sugerir una actividad. Va seguido obligatoriamente de gerundio.
How about / What about + VERBO-ING?
-
How about going to the cinema?
-
How about meeting at 7 in the lobby?
Incorrecto: How about go to the cinema? (infinitivo → error)
Incorrecto: How about we went to the cinema? (pasado → error de estructura)
7.3 LET'S + infinitivo sin TO
Expresa una sugerencia o invitación que incluye al hablante.
Let's + infinitivo sin TO
-
Let's go for a walk.
-
Let's have a drink.
7.4 SHALL WE + infinitivo sin TO
Fórmula más formal para sugerir hacer algo juntos. Común en inglés británico.
-
Shall we go to the cinema tonight?
-
Shall we start the meeting?
7.5 Tabla comparativa de sugerencias
| Estructura | Forma verbal siguiente | Ejemplo |
|---|---|---|
| Why don't we/you... | + infinitivo sin TO | Why don't we have a drink? |
| How about / What about... | + gerundio (-ing) | How about having a drink? |
| Let's... | + infinitivo sin TO | Let's have a drink. |
| Shall we...? | + infinitivo sin TO | Shall we have a drink? |
| Why not...? | + infinitivo sin TO | Why not have a drink? |
PARTE III — Estructuras de consejo y recomendación
Las preguntas del examen mezclan sugerencias con otras estructuras de consejo o recomendación:
8. SHOULD / OUGHT TO + infinitivo sin TO
-
I really think you should buy that new car. (nunca «should to buy»)
-
You ought to study harder. (siempre «ought to» + infinitivo)
9. HAD BETTER + infinitivo sin TO
Expresa consejo urgente o advertencia:
- You had better leave now. (forma contracta: you'd better leave)
10. I ADVISE YOU TO + infinitivo
- I advise you to study harder. (siempre con TO)
11. IF I WERE YOU, I WOULD + infinitivo
Condicional de consejo (Tipo 2). Nótese que incluso con «I» se usa were (subjuntivo formal):
- If I were you, I would quit smoking.
12. I'D RATHER + sujeto + Past Simple (para otros)
Expresa preferencia respecto a las acciones de otra persona:
- I'd rather she didn't smoke in my flat. (pasado de subjuntivo → expresa presente/futuro)
13. IT MIGHT BE / COULD BE + adjetivo
Sugerencia tentativa:
- It might be a great idea to have a party. (nunca «might being»)
PARTE IV — Resumen esquemático
Preguntas indirectas — Checklist
-
La frase introductoria obliga a cambiar el orden.
-
Sujeto + Verbo (orden declarativo), nunca invertido.
-
No se añade «do/does/did» en la pregunta incrustada.
-
Si la pregunta original es sí/no → usar if o whether.
-
Los tiempos retroceden si la frase introductoria está en pasado.
Sugerencias — Checklist
| ¿Quién sugiere? | Estructura | Verbo siguiente |
|---|---|---|
| Ambos (we) | Why don't we | Infinitivo sin TO |
| El otro (you) | Why don't you | Infinitivo sin TO |
| Cualquiera | How about / What about | Gerundio (-ing) |
| Ambos | Let's | Infinitivo sin TO |
| Ambos (formal) | Shall we | Infinitivo sin TO |
PARTE V — Errores frecuentes en examen
-
«Do you know where does she work?» → Correcto: where she works
-
«How about go?» → Correcto: How about going?
-
«Why you don't...» → Correcto: Why don't you...
-
«I wonder how did she get home» → Correcto: how she got home
-
«Could you tell me where does she has to go?» → Correcto: where she has to go
-
«I should to buy» → Correcto: I should buy
-
«ought buying» → Correcto: ought to buy
-
«If I was you» → Correcto (formal): If I were you
-
«I'd rather she won't smoke» → Correcto: I'd rather she didn't smoke
-
«it might being» → Correcto: it might be
Pronombres relativos.
Pronombres relativos en inglés
Un pronombre relativo encabeza una proposición de relativo (oración subordinada adjetiva) que aporta información adicional sobre un sustantivo o pronombre antecedente. Los pronombres relativos son: who, whom, whose, which, that, where, when, why.
1. Tabla general de pronombres relativos
| Pronombre | Antecedente | Función en la cláusula | Ejemplo |
|---|---|---|---|
| who | persona | sujeto | The man who saved the kid. |
| whom | persona | objeto (formal) | The boy whom we met. |
| whose | persona / animal / cosa | posesión (genitivo) | The girl whose car broke down. |
| which | animal / cosa | sujeto u objeto | The box which was too heavy. |
| that | persona / animal / cosa | sujeto u objeto (especificativas) | Everything that you said. |
| where | lugar | circunstancial de lugar | The shop where I bought the shoes. |
| when | tiempo | circunstancial de tiempo | The day when we met. |
| why | razón | circunstancial de causa | The reason why he left. |
2. WHO — para personas (sujeto)
Who se usa cuando el pronombre relativo es el sujeto de la cláusula relativa y el antecedente es una persona (o animal con nombre / personalizado).
-
This is the man who saved the kid.
-
She gives advice to teenagers who feel stress during exams.
-
A detective is someone who discovers the truth about crimes.
-
My mother is the only person who loves me.
-
The criminals who managed to escape broke into a bank downtown.
Regla del sujeto: Si puede sustituirse por «he/she/they» en la cláusula, se usa who:
The man who saved the kid → «He saved the kid» → sujeto → who.
3. WHOM — para personas (objeto)
Whom se usa cuando el pronombre relativo es el objeto de la cláusula relativa (formal). En inglés coloquial suele sustituirse por who o simplemente se omite.
-
The boy, whom we met at my cousin's house, is coming.
-
Juan, whom you met at the party, is going for Erasmus.
-
She's going with a friend whom I don't really like.
-
The candidate whom I am going to support.
-
She's the actress whom he describes in his book.
Regla del objeto: Si puede sustituirse por «him/her/them» en la cláusula, se usa whom:
Juan, whom you met → «you met him» → objeto → whom.
Whom con preposición:
Cuando la preposición va delante (registro formal), solo puede usarse whom:
-
The wedding ceremony, to which few people attended...
-
This is the school in which I spent all my childhood.
-
I like the scene in which Dorothy meets Scarecrow.
Whom en preguntas directas:
-
Whom did you ask for directions? (formal; informal: Who did you ask?)
-
Whom are you going to recommend?
4. WHOSE — posesión (genitivo relativo)
Whose indica posesión. Sustituye al posesivo ('s o de + sustantivo). Puede referirse a personas, animales y cosas.
Antecedente + WHOSE + sustantivo (poseído) + resto de la cláusula
-
I talked to the girl whose car had broken down. (el coche de ella)
-
The police identified the murderer whose fingerprints were on the knife.
-
That is the man whose wife interviewed the Queen.
-
Dr. Andrew, whose career was brilliant, is retiring.
-
Mary, whose house is closer to mine, is my best friend.
-
The house whose windows are open is beautiful.
-
That's the play whose author I can't remember.
Cuándo usar whose vs. who/which: Si tras el pronombre relativo viene un sustantivo (sin artículo ni determinante), se usa whose. Si viene un verbo, se usa who/which.
5. WHICH — para cosas, animales y conceptos (sujeto u objeto)
Which se usa con antecedentes que NO son personas:
-
She was lifting a box which was too heavy. (sujeto)
-
The horse which won the race has died. (sujeto)
-
The meetings which my friends attended took place last night. (objeto)
-
Thank you for your e-mail, which was very interesting.
-
We travelled second class, which is much cheaper than first class.
-
Loch Ness, which people know for its friendly monster, is 37 km long.
-
A hairdryer is an electrical device which people use to dry their hair.
Which con preposición delante (cláusulas explicativas formales):
-
This is the school in which I spent all my childhood.
-
I like the scene in which Dorothy meets Scarecrow.
6. THAT — uso especial y restricciones
That puede sustituir a who o which en las cláusulas especificativas (sin comas), pero tiene importantes restricciones:
Cuándo se PREFIERE o EXIGE «that»
- Tras superlativo:
-
That's the worst film that I've ever seen.
-
Tony was the first person that I saw when I arrived.
- Tras pronombres indefinidos (everything, something, nothing, all, etc.):
-
Everything that you said is wrong.
-
That's all that I need to know.
- Antecedente mixto (personas + cosas):
- Those are the boys and the bicycles that my father saw by the river.
Cuándo NO se puede usar «that»
- En cláusulas explicativas (con comas): solo who/whom/which.
-
My grandfather, who is ninety, runs a marathon. (no «that»)
-
The mirror, which I broke last night, is quite expensive. (no «that»)
- Tras preposición: solo which/whom.
- The school in which I studied. (no «in that»)
7. WHERE y WHEN como relativos
WHERE — lugar
Sustituye a «in which / at which» cuando el antecedente es un lugar:
-
That's the roundabout where the police officer fined me.
-
That's the shop where I bought the shoes.
-
This is the house where the woman was attacked.
-
This is the zoo where the rhino was brought.
-
The library where I found this information is near your school.
-
The Internet is a place where you can get cheap technology products.
WHEN — tiempo
Sustituye a «at which / in which» cuando el antecedente es un momento temporal:
-
The postcard that I sent you was written when I was drunk.
-
We met an old man, when we were lost inside the woods. (aquí «when» introduce circunstancias temporales adicionales)
8. Omisión del pronombre relativo
El pronombre relativo puede omitirse cuando es el objeto de la cláusula especificativa (nunca cuando es sujeto):
-
Don't forget the notebook (that/which) Jane gave you. → omisión posible (Jane dio el cuaderno a ti = cuaderno es objeto)
-
The scarf (that/which) Julia was wearing was made in India. → omisión posible
-
You are the person (whom/who/that) I like the most. → omisión posible
-
That's the man (whom/who) Mary'd like to get married with. → omisión posible
NO se omite cuando es sujeto:
-
The man who saved the kid. (who = sujeto → no se puede omitir)
-
The horse which won the race. (which = sujeto → no se puede omitir)
9. Oraciones especificativas vs. explicativas
Esta distinción es fundamental tanto para el uso de that como para la puntuación:
9.1 Cláusula especificativa (defining / restrictive)
-
Sin comas.
-
Identifica al antecedente: restringe a qué persona u objeto nos referimos.
-
Puede usar: who, whom, whose, which, that o cero.
-
Si se elimina, la oración pierde su sentido específico.
The people who live in Scotland are called Scots. → especifica qué personas (las que viven en Escocia).
9.2 Cláusula explicativa (non-defining / non-restrictive)
-
Con comas (entre comas si va en medio, con coma si va al final).
-
Añade información extra sobre algo ya identificado.
-
Solo puede usar: who, whom, whose, which (NUNCA «that»).
-
Si se elimina, la oración sigue siendo gramaticalmente correcta y con sentido.
My grandfather, who is ninety, runs a marathon every six months.
→ Sabemos quién es el abuelo; la cláusula solo añade información.
Loch Ness, which people know for its friendly monster, is 37 km long.
→ Loch Ness está perfectamente identificado; la cláusula es información adicional.
| Característica | Especificativa | Explicativa |
|---|---|---|
| Comas | No | Sí |
| «That» posible | Sí | No |
| Omisión relativo | Sí (si es objeto) | No |
| Función | Identifica/restringe | Añade información |
10. WHO como pronombre relativo interrogativo
Fuera de las cláusulas de relativo, who, whom, whose, which actúan como pronombres interrogativos:
-
Who wrote this book? (sujeto de la pregunta)
-
Whom do you want to speak to? / Who do you want to speak to?
-
Whose car is parked in the handicapped space? (posesión)
-
There are several coats here, which one is yours? (elección entre alternativas)
Who vs. Whom en preguntas:
- Who → sujeto: Who called you? (he called you)
- Whom → objeto: Whom did you call? (you called him)
11. Estructuras avanzadas con cuantificadores + of + whom/which
Cuando el pronombre relativo va precedido de un cuantificador, se usa la construcción:
-
Grandpa had twelve brothers, most of whom are still alive.
-
The world is full of good singers whom I haven't heard from.
12. Resumen práctico: ¿qué pronombre uso?
├── Sí → Sujeto: WHO
│ Objeto: WHOM (o who/0 informal)
│ Posesión: WHOSE
└── No (cosa/animal) → Sujeto u objeto: WHICH / THAT
Posesión: WHOSE
Lugar: WHERE
Tiempo: WHEN
¿Hay comas? → Solo WHO, WHOM, WHICH, WHOSE (nunca THAT)
¿Superlativo o pronombre indefinido? → Preferir THAT ¿El relativo es objeto? → Se puede omitir (excepto en explicativas)
13. WHAT como relativo nominal («lo que»)
What no es un pronombre relativo ordinario (no pertenece a la serie who/which/that/where/when/why), pero sí funciona como relativo fusionado o nominal, equivalente a «lo que / la cosa que». Introduce una cláusula nominal que actúa como sujeto, objeto o complemento de la oración principal:
| Función | Ejemplo | Traducción |
|---|---|---|
| Sujeto | What you said surprised me. | Lo que dijiste me sorprendió. |
| Objeto directo | I don't understand what he means. | No entiendo lo que quiere decir. |
| Complemento | That is exactly what I need. | Eso es exactamente lo que necesito. |
Clave: what = «lo que» (incluye el antecedente dentro de sí mismo: the thing that). No lleva un antecedente externo separado.
- What I need is a good rest. = The thing that I need is a good rest.
Cuándo NO usar what
Cuando el antecedente sí está explícito en la oración, se usa that/which/who, NO what:
-
Everything that I know. ✓ (no everything what I know ✗)
-
The thing that you said. ✓ (no the thing what you said ✗)
-
Do you remember the film that we watched? ✓ (no …what we watched ✗)
14. Errores más comunes en examen
-
«which» para personas → usar who: The man who stole it. (no «which»)
-
«what» como relativo ordinario → what NO se usa como relativo ordinario cuando hay antecedente explícito: Everything that I know (no everything what I know ✗). Sí es correcto como relativo nominal/fusionado sin antecedente externo: What you said is true. = «Lo que dijiste es verdad.» (ver § 13)
-
«that» en explicativas (con comas) → imposible: My grandfather,
thatwho is ninety... -
«whom» de sujeto → error: The man whom stole it → correcto: who
-
«in that» → incorrecto: usar in which: the school in which I studied
-
«whose» con verbo directo → error: The man whose stole it → correcto: who
-
«who» para cosas → error: The car who was red → correcto: which/that
-
«where» para personas → error solo si no indica lugar: The man where I met → correcto: whom
-
Omitir relativo cuando es sujeto: The horse won the race (sin relativo) pierde su función subordinada si se pretendía usar como oración de relativo.
-
«which» en explicativas cuando el antecedente es toda una cláusula anterior: correcto y muy frecuente: We travelled second class, which is much cheaper.
Adverbios, adjetivos y adjetivos terminados en -ed e -ing.
Adverbios, Adjetivos y Adjetivos en -ed / -ing
1. Adjetivos: definición y función
Un adjetivo describe o califica a un sustantivo. En inglés es invariable en género y número: siempre adopta la misma forma.
-
She is a careful driver. (adjetivo → describe al sustantivo driver)
-
They are hard-working people.
1.1 Posición del adjetivo
| Posición | Uso | Ejemplo |
|---|---|---|
| Atributiva (antes del sustantivo) | Descripción directa | a beautiful day |
| Predicativa (tras verbos copulativos) | Resultado de be, seem, look, feel, smell, taste, sound, become, get... | The soup smells good |
Verbos copulativos frecuentes: be, seem, look, feel, smell, taste, sound, appear, become, get, stay, remain, turn.
Regla clave: tras un verbo copulativo se usa adjetivo, nunca adverbio.
- This steak smells good. ✓ (no goodly)
- She feels tired. ✓
- The water tastes bitter. ✓
2. Adverbios: definición y formación
Un adverbio modifica a un verbo, a un adjetivo u a otro adverbio. Responde a preguntas como ¿cómo? ¿cuándo? ¿dónde? ¿con qué frecuencia? ¿en qué medida?
2.1 Formación de adverbios de modo
La regla general es añadir -ly al adjetivo:
| Adjetivo | Adverbio | Nota |
|---|---|---|
| slow | slowly | regla básica |
| quick | quickly | regla básica |
| careful | carefully | regla básica |
| calm | calmly | regla básica |
| serious | seriously | regla básica |
| angry | angrily | adj. en -y → -ily |
| easy | easily | adj. en -y → -ily |
| happy | happily | adj. en -y → -ily |
| lucky | luckily | adj. en -y → -ily |
| heavy | heavily | adj. en -y → -ily |
| terrible | terribly | adj. en -le → -ly (se elimina la e) |
| simple | simply | adj. en -le → -ly |
| considerable | considerably | adj. en -le → -ly |
| wonderful | wonderfully | adj. en -ful → -fully |
| beautiful | beautifully | adj. en -ful → -fully |
| unfortunate | unfortunately | adj. en -ate → -ately |
| deliberate | deliberately | adj. en -ate → -ately |
| repeated | repeatedly | adj. en -ed → -edly |
2.2 Adverbios irregulares (CRÍTICO)
Estas formas son irregulares y generan muchos errores en los exámenes:
| Adjetivo | Adverbio | Trampa habitual |
|---|---|---|
| good | well | |
| fast | fast | |
| hard | hard | |
| late | late | |
| early | early | sin cambio |
| loud | loud / loudly | ambas válidas |
| high | high | |
| deep | deep / deeply | deep = físicamente; deeply = emocionalmente |
| close | close / closely | close = cerca; closely = atentamente |
| straight | straight | sin cambio |
Atención especial a hard / hardly:
- She worked very hard. (= con mucho esfuerzo) ✓
- He hardly ever reads. (= casi nunca) ✓
She worked very hardly.✗
Atención especial a good / well:
- She is a good singer. (adjetivo → sustantivo) ✓
- She sings really well. (adverbio → verbo) ✓
She sings really good.✗ (en inglés formal/estándar)
Comparativo y superlativo irregular de good / well
Good (adjetivo) y well (adverbio) tienen comparativo y superlativo irregulares: no se forman con more/most ni con -er/-est:
| Grado | Adjetivo | Adverbio |
|---|---|---|
| Positivo | good | well |
| Comparativo | better | better |
| Superlativo | the best | the best |
-
This is a good book, but that one is better and the last one is the best. ✓
-
This is a more good book.✗ -
She plays tennis well, but her sister plays better. ✓
-
She was wonderful yesterday. She had never played football better. ✓
El mismo patrón se aplica a los irregulares de bad → worse → the worst y far → further/farther → the furthest/farthest, pero el más examinado es good/well → better → best.
3. Posición de los adverbios
3.1 Adverbios de frecuencia
Posición normal: entre el sujeto y el verbo principal; detrás del auxiliar o de be.
| Frecuencia | Ejemplo |
|---|---|
| always, usually, often, sometimes, rarely, never, hardly ever | I usually have lunch at one o'clock. ✓ |
| He always reads his book quickly. ✓ | |
| She is always telling us the same story. ✓ | |
| I can often remember long past events. ✓ |
Usually I have lunch(posición de contraste o énfasis, no la normal)
I have usually lunch✗ (entre auxiliar y participio está bien, pero no entre verbo y objeto)
Con verbos modales: modal + adv. de frecuencia + infinitivo
- I can often remember... ✓
3.2 Adverbios de modo
Se colocan normalmente después del verbo (o del complemento directo):
-
She answered the question calmly. ✓
-
He hit the wall repeatedly. ✓
-
They learn English easily. ✓
NO se insertan entre el verbo y el objeto directo:
She plays loudly the piano.✗ → She plays the piano loudly. ✓
3.3 Adverbios de grado (intensificadores)
Modifican adjetivos u otros adverbios, nunca sustantivos:
-
It is very windy. ✓ (no much windy)
-
She is terribly upset. ✓
-
He is probably ill. ✓
-
It's almost ten o'clock. ✓
-
She was really happy. ✓
-
She was driving too fast. ✓
Muy / mucho con sustantivos: very much, a lot (no very solo)
- My parents had very bad weather. ✓ (modifica adjetivo)
3.4 Adverbios en posición inicial (enfáticos o de frase)
Algunos adverbios de frase van al inicio con coma:
-
Luckily, she had fastened her seat belt.
-
Unfortunately, I missed the train.
-
Suddenly, they saw a strange light.
-
Needless to say, I'll go there at once.
Nota: luckily (no luckly, luckingly, luckedly).
4. Adjetivos en -ed y en -ing (CRÍTICO)
Esta distinción es uno de los puntos más examinados. Se forman a partir de verbos y tienen significados completamente distintos.
4.1 Regla general
| Forma | Quién/qué experimenta | Quién/qué causa |
|---|---|---|
| -ing | describe la causa o la cosa/persona que produce el efecto | - |
| -ed | describe a la persona que siente o experimenta el efecto | - |
El trabajo es tiring → el trabajo cansa (es la causa).
El trabajador está tired → el trabajador está cansado (es quien lo siente).
4.2 Tabla de los pares más frecuentes en el examen
| Verbo | -ing (causa) | -ed (efecto en persona) |
|---|---|---|
| bore | boring (aburrido = aburridor) | bored (aburrido = que siente aburrimiento) |
| tire | tiring (agotador) | tired (cansado) |
| excite | exciting (emocionante) | excited (emocionado) |
| interest | interesting (interesante) | interested (interesado) |
| surprise | surprising (sorprendente) | surprised (sorprendido) |
| shock | shocking (impactante) | shocked (impactado) |
| frighten | frightening (aterrador) | frightened (asustado) |
| annoy | annoying (irritante) | annoyed (irritado/enfadado) |
| disappoint | disappointing (decepcionante) | disappointed (decepcionado) |
| amaze | amazing (asombroso) | amazed (asombrado) |
| confuse | confusing (confuso/que confunde) | confused (confundido) |
| satisfy | satisfying (satisfactorio) | satisfied (satisfecho) |
| embarrass | embarrassing (vergonzoso) | embarrassed (avergonzado) |
4.3 Ejemplos clave del examen
-
We went to the cinema, but the movie was boring; we were bored to death. ✓
-
Working on the steel factory is very tiring! We're always very tired! ✓
-
The performance was amazing! I was so excited. ✓
-
I didn't expect to see Patrick. I was really surprised. ✓
-
She was very annoyed with him for not telling the truth. ✓
-
To hear about the invasion is very frightening. ✓
-
The children are still frightened; the scene was really shocking. ✓
-
George always talks about the same things. He's really boring. ✓
-
The results are awful. It's so disappointing. ✓
Trampa: frightened = asustado (persona); frightening = aterrador (situación/cosa).
frightened ≠ frighten (forma verbal simple, no adjetivo).
5. Orden de los adjetivos
Cuando varios adjetivos preceden a un sustantivo, siguen un orden fijo:
Determinante → Opinión → Tamaño → Edad → Forma → Color → Origen → Material → Propósito + SUSTANTIVO
| Categoría | Ejemplos |
|---|---|
| Opinión | beautiful, nice, ugly, lovely |
| Tamaño | big, small, tall, short, long |
| Edad | old, young, new, ancient |
| Forma | round, square, flat |
| Color | red, blue, dark green |
| Origen | British, Spanish, French |
| Material | wooden, iron, woollen |
| Propósito | sleeping (bag), racing (car) |
- a 25-year-old British medical student ✓ (número-edad → origen)
- dark-green boots ✓ (modificador de color → color)
- a nice (small) old (round) (black) French clock
5.1 Adjetivos compuestos con guion
Son muy frecuentes en el examen:
| Estructura | Ejemplo | Significado |
|---|---|---|
| adv/adj + participio pasado | well-dressed, sun-tanned, hand-picked, half-cooked, hard-working | |
| adj + participio presente | tough-looking, good-looking, travelling (salesman) | |
| color compuesto | dark-green, sea-green | |
| número + sustantivo + old | five-year-old children | (sin s en el número) |
| noun + noun | love story, table lamp, sock shop, wine glasses, life sentence | primer sustantivo = adjetivo |
Regla noun + noun: el primer sustantivo actúa como adjetivo y va en singular.
- wine glasses (no wines glasses, no wine's glasses) ✓
- a love story ✓
- an iron closet ✓
- a wool sweater ✓ (más común que woollen sweater en compuestos)
Regla five-year-old: cuando precede al sustantivo como adjetivo compuesto, los números NO llevan -s:
- five-year-old children ✓ (no five-years-old)
- a 25-year-old British student ✓
6. Adjetivos sustantivados
Algunos adjetivos funcionan como sustantivos para referirse a grupos de personas. Van precedidos de the y el verbo va en plural:
| Adjetivo sustantivado | Significado |
|---|---|
| the dead | los muertos |
| the needy | los necesitados |
| the blind | los ciegos |
| the homeless | los sin hogar |
| the elderly | los ancianos |
- The dead were taken to a military cemetery. ✓ (no the dead's people)
- The money is for the needy. ✓ (no the needies, no the needed people)
7. Adverbios problemáticos: pares y tríos
7.1 almost / about / nearly
-
It's almost ten o'clock, the movie is about to begin. ✓
-
about to = a punto de (inmediatez)
-
almost / nearly = casi
7.2 still / yet / already
| Adverbio | Uso | Posición | Ejemplo |
|---|---|---|---|
| still | acción que continúa (esperada o no) | medio (antes del verbo o tras be) | He still hasn't paid. |
| yet | en preguntas/negativas: hasta ahora | final de frase | He has not paid yet. ✓ |
| already | antes de lo esperado | medio o final | The wine had already been drunk. ✓ |
7.3 hardly ever
-
I hardly ever read the newspaper. ✓
-
hardly never✗ (doble negativo incorrecto)
7.4 very + adjetivo; very much + verbo/sustantivo
-
It was very windy. ✓ (no much windy)
-
My parents had very bad weather. ✓
8. Adjetivos high / tall y loud / loudly
-
tall = alto en sentido físico (personas, árboles, edificios)
-
high = alto en sentido de altura/posición (montañas, precios, temperatura) o abstracto
-
How high is that mountain? ✓ (no how tall)
-
loud = ruidoso (adjetivo); loudly = con ruido (adverbio de modo)
-
Don't speak so loud/loudly. (ambas válidas informalmente; loudly más formal)
-
She has a loud voice. (adjetivo)
9. Resumen de reglas clave
-
Adjetivo tras verbo copulativo (look, smell, feel, taste...): nunca adverbio.
-
Adverbio de modo modifica verbo o adjetivo: termina en -ly (salvo irregulares: fast, hard, late, early, good→well).
-
-ing: la cosa/situación que produce el sentimiento. -ed: la persona que lo siente.
-
Orden de adjetivos: opinión → tamaño → edad → forma → color → origen → material.
-
Noun + noun: primer sustantivo actúa de adjetivo y va en singular (sin 's).
-
Five-year-old: sin -s cuando es adjetivo compuesto.
-
hard ≠ hardly; good ≠ well; late ≠ lately.
-
Adverbios de frecuencia: entre sujeto y verbo principal / tras auxiliar.
-
Adjetivos sustantivados (the dead, the needy): the + adj, verbo en plural.
-
still / yet / already: posición y contexto diferentes.
Conectores de frases.
Conectores de Frases
Los conectores (también llamados conjunciones o linking words) enlazan oraciones o partes de ellas expresando relaciones lógicas: causa, contraste, finalidad, consecuencia, tiempo, condición, etc. El examen de Policía Nacional pone especial énfasis en su forma exacta (qué preposición o complemento llevan) y en distinguir cuándo se usa cada uno.
1. Conectores adversativos y concesivos (CONTRASTE)
Son los más examinados. Expresan contraste o concesión («a pesar de», «sin embargo», «aunque»).
1.1 Although / Even though / Even if
Estructura: conector + cláusula (sujeto + verbo)
| Conector | Matiz | Ejemplo |
|---|---|---|
| although | concesión (hecho real) | Although it was raining, he didn't take his umbrella. |
| even though | concesión enfática (hecho real sorprendente) | He delivered the message even though he was told not to. |
| even if | concesión hipotética (condición) | You always do your best, even if you're sick. |
Posición: pueden ir al inicio de frase (con coma) o en el medio (sin coma).
- Although the charges proved to be false, the President resigned. ✓
- The President resigned although the charges proved to be false. ✓
Error frecuente:
Despite of+ cláusula ✗ /Although of✗ /Even although✗
1.2 Despite / In spite of
Estructura: conector + nombre / pronombre / gerundio (NO + cláusula con verbo conjugado directamente)
| Conector | Ejemplo correcto |
|---|---|
| despite | Despite the rain, we had a beautiful walk. ✓ |
| despite | Despite being outnumbered, Admiral Nimitz won. ✓ |
| in spite of | In spite of his success, it was hard to find a job. ✓ |
| in spite of | In spite of the poor reviews, the play was a success. ✓ |
Error MUY frecuente en exámenes:
Despite ofthe rain ✗ → Despite the rain ✓ (despite ya lleva el of implícito)
In spitethe rain ✗ → In spite of the rain ✓ (in spite siempre con of)
In spite that,in spite as✗
Truco para el examen:
-
Although / even though → sigo con sujeto + verbo
-
Despite / in spite of → sigo con nombre o gerundio (sin verbo conjugado)
Equivalencia:
-
Although it rained → Despite the rain / In spite of the rain
-
Although he was first-timer → Despite being his first time / In spite of it being his first time
1.3 However / Nevertheless / Yet / Though (adversativos de oración)
Estan conectan dos frases independientes (oración 1. Conector, oración 2.).
| Conector | Matiz | Posición | Ejemplo |
|---|---|---|---|
| however | sin embargo | inicio de 2.ª oración (+ coma) | He doesn't like classical music. However, he went to the concert. |
| nevertheless | no obstante | inicio de 2.ª oración (+ coma) | The mission was suicidal. Nevertheless, the squadron volunteered. |
| yet | sin embargo / aun así | inicio o final | I could never get there. Yet my brother could. |
| though | aunque (informal, al final) | final de frase | He's friendly, a bit mean though. |
Diferencia however / although:
- However conecta dos oraciones independientes (punto o punto y coma entre ellas).
- Although va dentro de una oración compuesta (une dos cláusulas sin punto).
However it was raining, he didn't take his umbrella.✗
- Although it was raining, he didn't take his umbrella. ✓
- He doesn't like classical music. However, he went to the concert. ✓
2. Conectores causales (CAUSA)
2.1 Because / Because of / Since / As / Due to / Owing to
| Conector | Estructura | Ejemplo |
|---|---|---|
| because | + cláusula (sujeto + verbo) | We left soon because we had to get up early. ✓ |
| because of | + nombre / gerundio | Because of the fog, all flights were cancelled. ✓ |
| since | + cláusula | Since he didn't know how to do his job, he seemed disoriented. ✓ |
| as | + cláusula | As I wasn't feeling well, I went home early. ✓ |
| due to | + nombre / gerundio | Due to the bad weather, Anne couldn't go skiing. ✓ |
| owing to | + nombre / gerundio | Owing to the traffic jam, he arrived late. ✓ |
| on account of | + nombre / gerundio | On account of his behaviour, he was punished. ✓ |
Error frecuente:
Due of✗ → due to ✓
Because off✗ → because of ✓
Owing of✗ → owing to ✓
On accout✗ → on account of ✓
Truco:
-
Because → siempre seguido de sujeto + verbo.
-
Because of / due to / owing to → siempre seguido de nombre o gerundio.
3. Conectores consecutivos / de resultado (CONSECUENCIA)
| Conector | Estructura | Ejemplo |
|---|---|---|
| so | oración1, so oración2 | They didn't like the programme, so they turned off the TV. ✓ |
| therefore | inicio de oración | Therefore, I resign. ✓ |
| as a result | inicio de oración | As a result, he lost his job. ✓ |
| consequently | inicio de oración | Consequently, they withdrew. ✓ |
| so that | + sujeto + verbo (propósito/resultado) | He moved stealthily so that nobody heard him. ✓ |
| such ... that | such + (art.) + adj. + noun + that | It was such a good film that we watched it twice. ✓ |
| so ... that | so + adj./adv. + that | She was so tired that she fell asleep. ✓ |
so vs so that:
- so (consecuencia): It was raining, so I took my umbrella. (resultado)
- so that (finalidad): I took my umbrella so that I wouldn't get wet. (propósito + sujeto)
4. Conectores de finalidad (PROPÓSITO)
| Conector | Estructura | Ejemplo |
|---|---|---|
| in order to | + infinitivo | They moved stealthily in order to set up the ambush. ✓ |
| so as to | + infinitivo | She spoke softly so as not to wake the baby. ✓ |
| to | + infinitivo (forma corta) | The doctor operated to save his patient. ✓ |
| in order | + not + infinitivo (negativo) | He tried to sneak in, in order not to wake the owners. ✓ |
| so that | + sujeto + verbo | I'll speak slowly so that you can understand. ✓ |
| for + gerundio | uso, propósito de un objeto | This machine is for cutting grass. ✓ |
Errores frecuentes:
in order by / in order for + infinitivo✗ → in order to ✓
for to + infinitivo✗ → simplemente to ✓
so assola (sin to) ✗ → so as to ✓
in ordersin to ni not to ✗ en sentido de propósito.
Nota: to e in order to son intercambiables:
- The doctor operated to / in order to save his patient. → A y B correctas (en examen: «A and B are correct»)
5. Conectores temporales
5.1 As soon as (en cuanto / tan pronto como)
Estructura: as soon as + sujeto + verbo (en presente si es futuro)
-
As soon as you arrive at the airport, change this money. ✓
-
I'll let you know as soon as I get home. ✓ (no will get)
-
As soon as the bus arrived, the passengers rushed to board. ✓
Error MUY frecuente:
so soon as✗ → as soon as ✓
as soon that✗
as soon like✗
soon as✗ (sin el primer as)
CRÍTICO: Tras as soon as con referencia futura, el verbo va en presente (no futuro):
- As soon as she arrives (no will arrive), I'll tell her. ✓
5.2 While / During / When / By the time
| Conector | Estructura | Ejemplo |
|---|---|---|
| while | + cláusula (acción simultánea en curso) | She fell asleep while she was watching TV. ✓ |
| during | + nombre (no cláusula) | During the meeting, he fell asleep. ✓ |
| when | + cláusula | Gary called when you were out. ✓ |
| by the time | + cláusula | By the time I got to the meeting, most people had gone. ✓ |
during vs while: during + nombre; while + cláusula.
- She fell asleep during the film. ✓ (nombre)
- She fell asleep while she was watching the film. ✓ (cláusula)
5.3 Since / For
| Conector | Uso | Ejemplo |
|---|---|---|
| since | + punto temporal (fecha, evento) | Peter has worked here since he left school. ✓ |
| for | + período de tiempo | They have swum in that lake for decades. ✓ |
- since 2019 (fecha) ✓; for two years (período) ✓
from 2019en Perfect no es correcto en este contexto ✗
5.4 No sooner ... than (inversión)
Estructura formal de inmediatez inmediata:
-
No sooner had he drunk the wine than he began to be sick. ✓
-
(Inversión: auxiliar + sujeto + participio)
6. Conectores de comparación y modo: as if / as though
| Conector | Uso | Verbo |
|---|---|---|
| as if | comparación irreal/hipotética | subjuntivo (were, pasado) |
| as though | igual que as if | subjuntivo (were, pasado) |
-
He acted as if being with me was bad. ✓
-
They wandered in the streets as if they were lost. ✓ (no are, no be)
-
He orders them about as if they were his slaves. ✓
-
Jill's eyes are red. She looks as if she had cried. ✓
-
It looks as though a storm is going to break out. ✓
Errores frecuentes:
as like✗ /like if✗ /as it✗ /as so✗ /as thought✗
- like solo NO introduce cláusula con verbo en inglés estándar.
- as if / as though + verbo en pasado (subjuntivo) para situaciones hipotéticas.
7. Conectores aditivos (ADICIÓN)
| Conector | Uso | Ejemplo |
|---|---|---|
| and | suma simple | He is friendly and kind. |
| moreover | además (añade información positiva) | Eating well is good for health. Moreover, it helps you look better. ✓ |
| furthermore | además (formal) | Furthermore, the report showed... |
| in addition | además | In addition, he speaks three languages. |
| also | también (posición media) | He also speaks French. |
| as well as | además de (estructura paralela) | She speaks French as well as Spanish. |
| both ... and | tanto ... como | Both boys and girls enjoyed it. |
Moreover vs Although: moreover añade algo positivo; although introduce contraste.
- Eating well is important. Moreover, it helps attraction. ✓ (no although)
8. Conectores condicionales
| Conector | Uso | Ejemplo |
|---|---|---|
| if | condición real o hipotética | If you study, you'll pass. |
| unless | a menos que (= if not) | I'll wait unless you call me. |
| even if | incluso si (hipotético) | Even if she comes, I will not talk to her. ✓ |
| provided (that) | con la condición de que | You can go, provided you're home by 10. |
| as long as | mientras (condición) | As long as you're careful, it's fine. |
9. Instead of y rather than
Ambos expresan preferencia o sustitución:
| Conector | Estructura | Ejemplo |
|---|---|---|
| instead of | + nombre o gerundio | We can go surfing, instead of going to the mountains. ✓ |
| rather than | + infinitivo (sin to) o gerundio | He prefers cycling rather than driving. ✓ |
instead of go✗ → instead of going ✓
instead on going✗ → instead of going ✓
10. Needless to say
Expresión fija = «huelga decir», «ni que decir tiene»:
-
Needless to say, everything he told you is a lie. ✓
-
Needless of saying✗ /Needless to tell✗
11. Every / Each con minute, day, etc.
-
Every minute you waste is what you lose. ✓
-
Each minute you waste is what you lose. ✓
-
Every y Each son ambos correctos en este contexto (respuesta: «B and C are correct»).
12. Tabla-resumen de errores más frecuentes
| Forma INCORRECTA | Forma CORRECTA |
|---|---|
| Despite the rain | |
| In spite of the rain | |
| Despite / In spite of the rain (con nombre) | |
| as soon as | |
| as soon as | |
| in order to | |
| to practise / in order to practise | |
| due to / owing to | |
| because of | |
| as if / as though | |
| Although it was raining, he... | |
| Even though |
13. Esquema visual: ¿Conector + cláusula o + nombre?
CONTRASTE:
+ cláusula (S+V): although, even though, even if, whereas, while
+ nombre/gerundio: despite, in spite of
Oración independiente: however, nevertheless, yet, though (al final)
CAUSA:
+ cláusula (S+V): because, since, as
+ nombre/gerundio: because of, due to, owing to, on account of
FINALIDAD:
+ infinitivo: in order to, so as to, to
+ S+V: so that
TIEMPO:
+ S+V: as soon as, while, when, by the time, since
+ nombre: during
Período: for; Punto: since
Gerundios e infinitivos.
Gerundios e Infinitivos
Esta materia es la más extensa del examen de inglés de Policía Nacional (356 preguntas). Cubre cuándo usar la forma -ing (gerundio) o to + infinitivo (o infinitivo desnudo) tras verbos, adjetivos, preposiciones y otras construcciones.
1. El gerundio (-ing): usos
El gerundio es la forma verbal en -ing usada como nombre.
1.1 Gerundio como sujeto de la oración
Cuando una actividad actúa de sujeto, se usa el gerundio (no el infinitivo con to):
-
Reading is my favourite activity. ✓
-
Playing football on Saturday morning is the best thing of my weekend. ✓
-
Saving money now seems impossible. ✓
-
Exercising even just one day a week is beneficial. ✓
-
Fishing bores me! ✓
1.2 Gerundio tras preposición
Tras cualquier preposición (of, for, about, in, after, before, without, by, on, instead of, at, suspicious of...) siempre va gerundio:
| Preposición + gerundio | Ejemplo |
|---|---|
| after + -ing | After playing a match, we came home. ✓ |
| before + -ing | I always read before going to bed. ✓ |
| without + -ing | They entered the palace without being seen. ✓ |
| by + -ing | He stopped the wolf by putting a fence. ✓ |
| for + -ing | Those boys were arrested for stealing. ✓ |
| for + -ing (uso/propósito) | That is my screwdriver for screwing those screws. ✓ |
| of + -ing | She has no intention of going away. ✓ |
| of + -ing | He is suspicious of stealing money. ✓ |
| instead of + -ing | We can go surfing instead of going to the mountains. ✓ |
REGLA ABSOLUTA: preposición → gerundio. Nunca preposición + infinitivo.
of to go✗ → of going ✓
for to practise✗ → for practising / to practise ✓
1.3 Gerundio tras ciertos verbos (LISTA CRÍTICA)
Estos verbos siempre van seguidos de gerundio (no infinitivo):
| Verbo | Ejemplo |
|---|---|
| avoid | You should avoid driving too fast. ✓ / Avoid eating too much. ✓ |
| enjoy | My brothers enjoy reading comics. ✓ / They enjoy working together. ✓ |
| finish | Have you finished playing computer games? ✓ / They've just finished recording the CD. ✓ |
| mind | Do you mind helping Fred? ✓ / I wouldn't mind watching it again. ✓ |
| dislike | I dislike getting up early. ✓ |
| hate | I hate going to the cinema alone. ✓ |
| love | I love going to the cinema alone. ✓ |
| like | I like going to the movies during the week. ✓ |
| quit / give up | David quit smoking a year ago. ✓ |
| keep (on) | Keep trying! ✓ |
| consider | She considered leaving early. ✓ |
| imagine | Can you imagine working in an office? ✓ |
| suggest | He suggested going to the cinema. ✓ |
| feel like | I don't feel like going out today. ✓ |
| can't help | One can't help laughing at those videos. ✓ |
| it's worth | It's not worth paying/spending so much. ✓ |
| it's no use | It's no use crying. ✓ |
| practise | Practise speaking every day. ✓ |
| miss | I miss living in Madrid. ✓ |
| risk | Don't risk losing everything. ✓ |
| resist | She couldn't resist eating the chocolate. ✓ |
| spend time | He spends time reading. ✓ |
feel like → SIEMPRE gerundio:
- I don't feel like going out. ✓ (no to go, no go)
can't help → SIEMPRE gerundio:
- One can't help laughing. ✓ (no to laugh)
2. El infinitivo con to: usos
2.1 Infinitivo tras ciertos verbos (LISTA CRÍTICA)
| Verbo | Ejemplo |
|---|---|
| want | I want to go somewhere different. ✓ |
| would like | I would like to go somewhere. ✓ / Would you like to run with us? ✓ |
| would love | She would love to visit you. ✓ |
| hope | I hope to see you soon. ✓ |
| plan | Debbie plans to study abroad. ✓ |
| decide | They decided to leave early. ✓ |
| agree | Did they agree to follow the rules? ✓ / My sister agrees to lend me money. ✓ |
| offer | They offered to help us. ✓ |
| refuse | He refused to answer. ✓ |
| promise | She promised to call. ✓ |
| manage | He managed to escape. ✓ |
| afford | We can't afford to buy a new car. ✓ |
| expect | The witness is expected to testify later. ✓ |
| pretend | He pretended to be ill. ✓ |
| tend | He tends to arrive late. ✓ |
| need | He doesn't need to send the report until February. ✓ |
| fail | He failed to appear on time. ✓ |
| swear | The couple swore to make a formal complaint. ✓ |
| wish | I wish to speak to the manager. ✓ |
| learn | She learned to drive at 18. ✓ |
| seem / appear | She seemed to enjoy it. ✓ |
| begin / start | We begin to study at eight. ✓ |
| continue | They continued to work / working (ambos). ✓ |
2.2 Infinitivo con to tras adjetivos
-
I was so pleased to meet him. ✓
-
We were anxious to take the exam. ✓
-
It is hard for me to say good-bye. ✓
-
It isn't so easy to get a good result. ✓
-
You're not old enough to have grandchildren. ✓
-
Her handwriting is difficult to read. ✓
-
It's never late enough for me to leave. ✓
-
At that point we had no time to waste. ✓
Estructura: adj + (for + objeto) + to + infinitivo
- It is hard for me to say good-bye. ✓
- It is impossible to save money now. (o: Saving money now is impossible.) ✓
3. Verbos con objeto + infinitivo sin to (bare infinitive)
Con ciertos verbos causativos y de percepción, el objeto va seguido de infinitivo sin to:
3.1 Make y let
| Estructura | Ejemplo |
|---|---|
| make + objeto + inf. desnudo | Our teacher always makes us feel comfortable. ✓ |
| She made him eat the sandwich. ✓ | |
| let + objeto + inf. desnudo | Our boss lets us leave early. ✓ |
| Let them come with us, dad. ✓ | |
| My uncle didn't let me drive his car. ✓ ✓ | |
| Don't let them play in your garden. ✓ |
makes us to feel✗ /lets us to leave✗
- make y let siempre con infinitivo desnudo (sin to).
3.2 Verbos de percepción: see, hear, watch, notice, feel
Estructura: verbo + objeto + infinitivo desnudo (acción completa) o gerundio (acción en curso):
| Uso | Ejemplo |
|---|---|
| Acción completa (inf. desnudo) | I saw her cross the street. ✓ |
| Acción en curso (gerundio) | She saw the burglar running away. ✓ |
| I saw him closing the doors. ✓ | |
| Did you see your father opening the door? ✓ | |
| I heard someone crying next door all night. ✓ |
En el examen suele aparecer el gerundio como respuesta correcta para acciones en progreso observadas.
3.3 Have causativo
- I have to pick Marta up from the airport. ✓ (have to + inf.)
3.4 Help (puede llevar infinitivo con o sin to)
-
Please, come quickly to help me. ✓
-
She helped him (to) carry the bags. ✓ (ambas formas aceptadas)
4. Verbos con objeto + infinitivo con to
| Verbo | Estructura | Ejemplo |
|---|---|---|
| want | want + obj + to + inf | I want you to taste this food. ✓ / I want her to come with us. ✓ |
| ask | ask + obj + to + inf | I asked him to come with me. ✓ / The police asked the driver to show his documents. ✓ |
| tell | tell + obj + to + inf | His mother told him to stay calm. ✓ / They told me not to phone the police. ✓ |
| order | order + obj + to + inf | The sergeant ordered them to do push-ups. ✓ |
| expect | expect + obj + to + inf | I expect you to be on time. ✓ |
| invite | invite + obj + to + inf | She invited him to join the team. ✓ |
| allow | allow + obj + to + inf | She was allowed to leave early. ✓ |
| remind | remind + obj + to + inf | Remind him to call you. ✓ |
| teach | teach + obj + to + inf | She taught me to cook. ✓ |
| encourage | encourage + obj + to + inf | He encouraged me to try. ✓ |
| force | force + obj + to + inf | She was forced to resign. ✓ |
Diferencia say / tell:
- tell + objeto + to + infinitivo: She told me to leave. ✓
- say NO lleva objeto directo de persona sin to: She said (to me) "leave". ✓
She said me to leave.✗
5. Verbos que admiten gerundio O infinitivo sin cambio de significado
Algunos verbos aceptan ambas formas con el mismo significado:
| Verbo | Con gerundio | Con infinitivo |
|---|---|---|
| like | I like going to the cinema. | I like to go to the cinema. |
| love | I love going out. | I love to go out. |
| hate | I hate walking alone. | I hate to walk alone. |
| begin / start | It began raining. | It began to rain. |
| continue | She continued reading. | She continued to read. |
| prefer | He prefers riding to running. | He prefers to ride rather than to run. |
Nota sobre prefer:
- prefer + gerundio + to + gerundio: prefers riding to running. ✓
- prefer + infinitivo + rather than + infinitivo desnudo: prefers to ride rather than run. ✓
6. VERBOS CRÍTICOS: cambio de significado según gerundio o infinitivo
Este es el punto más delicado del tema.
6.1 Remember
| Forma | Significado | Ejemplo |
|---|---|---|
| remember + gerundio | recordar haber hecho algo (evento pasado) | I remember locking the door when you came. (recuerdo haberlo cerrado) ✓ |
| remember + infinitivo | acordarse de hacer algo (tarea pendiente) | Remember to lock the door before you leave. (acuérdate de cerrarlo) ✓ |
- I remember swimming in that river when I was a kid. (= recuerdo que nadé) ✓
6.2 Stop
| Forma | Significado | Ejemplo |
|---|---|---|
| stop + gerundio | dejar de hacer algo | John stopped eating meat two years ago. (dejó de comer) ✓ |
| stop + infinitivo | pararse para hacer algo (propósito) | He stopped to buy a newspaper. (se paró para comprar) ✓ |
6.3 Try
| Forma | Significado | Ejemplo |
|---|---|---|
| try + gerundio | intentar algo como experimento o solución | Try adding more salt. (prueba a añadir) ✓ |
| try + infinitivo | intentar hacer algo (esfuerzo) | He tried to avoid answering my question. ✓ |
6.4 Forget
| Forma | Significado | Ejemplo |
|---|---|---|
| forget + gerundio | olvidar haber hecho algo (pasado) | I'll never forget meeting her. ✓ |
| forget + infinitivo | olvidarse de hacer algo (tarea) | Don't forget to call her. ✓ |
6.5 Go on
| Forma | Significado | Ejemplo |
|---|---|---|
| go on + gerundio | continuar haciendo lo mismo | He went on talking for hours. ✓ |
| go on + infinitivo | pasar a hacer otra cosa | He went on to explain the next point. ✓ |
6.6 Used to vs be used to
| Estructura | Significado | Ejemplo |
|---|---|---|
| used to + infinitivo | costumbre pasada (ya no ocurre) | When I was a child, we used to see my grandparents every week. ✓ |
| be used to + gerundio | estar acostumbrado a (actualmente) | I'm used to working late. ✓ |
| get used to + gerundio | acostumbrarse a | He got used to living alone. ✓ |
7. El gerundio como complemento de preposición en frases nominales
-
I have experience in working with children. ✓
-
I made the mistake of borrowing money from them. ✓
-
She has no intention of going away. ✓
-
He is suspicious of stealing money. ✓
8. El infinitivo en estructuras especiales
8.1 Too... to y enough... to
| Estructura | Ejemplo |
|---|---|
| too + adj + to + inf | She was too tired to continue. ✓ |
| adj + enough + to + inf | You're not old enough to have grandchildren. ✓ |
| enough + noun + to + inf | We had enough time to finish. ✓ |
8.2 It is + adj + (for sb) + to + inf
-
It is hard for me to say good-bye. ✓
-
It is important to be on time. ✓
-
It is impossible to save money now. ✓
8.3 Be about to (inminencia)
- The movie is about to begin. ✓ (está a punto de empezar)
8.4 Infinitivo tras how/what/where/when/whether
-
I don't know how to do it. ✓
-
She showed me where to put it. ✓
8.5 How dare + infinitivo desnudo
- How dare you talk back to me? ✓ (no to talk)
8.6 Would rather + infinitivo desnudo
- I would rather stay at home. ✓ (no to stay)
8.7 Verbos modales + infinitivo desnudo
Tras los modales (can, could, will, would, shall, should, may, might, must, need, dare) siempre va infinitivo sin to:
-
You can't say that here! ✓
-
You needn't send the money back until January. ✓
-
She must leave now. ✓
-
How dare you talk back to me? ✓
9. Gerundio pasivo: being + participio
Cuando el sujeto recibe la acción, se usa gerundio pasivo:
-
They entered without being seen. ✓
-
They hated being called mercenaries. ✓
-
The samurai entered the palace without being seen. ✓
10. Tabla maestra: verbos + gerundio / + infinitivo
Solo gerundio (-ing)
avoid, enjoy, finish, mind, dislike, hate*, like*, love*, keep (on), consider, imagine, suggest, feel like, can't help, it's worth, it's no use, practise, miss, risk, spend time, deny, admit, postpone, put off, give up, quit
Solo infinitivo (to + inf)
want, would like, would love, hope, plan, decide, agree, offer, refuse, promise, manage, afford, expect, pretend, tend, need, fail, swear, wish, learn, seem, appear, ask (sb), tell (sb), order (sb), force (sb), allow (sb), teach (sb)
Ambos sin cambio de significado
begin, start, continue, prefer, hate*, like*, love*
Ambos CON cambio de significado (CRÍTICO)
remember, stop, try, forget, go on, regret
11. Lend vs Borrow (vocabulario asociado frecuente)
| Verbo | Dirección | Ejemplo |
|---|---|---|
| lend (lent) | dar prestado | The bank lends money at high interest. ✓ / I lent him money. ✓ |
| borrow | tomar prestado | Can we borrow your car, uncle Bob? ✓ / They borrowed their father's motorcycle. ✓ |
lended✗ → pasado irregular: lent
I borrowed him money✗ → I lent him money ✓
borrow to✗ → simplemente borrow
12. Resumen de errores frecuentes en el examen
| Error | Correcto | Regla |
|---|---|---|
| feel like going | gerundio tras feel like | |
| avoid driving | gerundio tras avoid | |
| finish playing | gerundio tras finish | |
| enjoy reading | gerundio tras enjoy | |
| makes us feel | inf. desnudo tras make | |
| lets us leave | inf. desnudo tras let | |
| told me to go | tell + obj + to + inf | |
| agree to follow | inf. tras agree | |
| would like to go | inf. tras would like | |
| can't help laughing | gerundio tras can't help | |
| of going | gerundio tras preposición | |
| without being seen | gerundio tras preposición | |
| it's worth paying | gerundio tras it's worth | |
| how dare you talk | inf. desnudo tras dare |
So / Such. Expresiones de sorpresa, acuerdo o desacuerdo.
SO / SUCH. Expresiones de sorpresa, acuerdo o desacuerdo
1. SO y SUCH para intensificar
Tanto so como such expresan intensidad (equivalen a «tan» / «tan… que»), pero se usan con categorías gramaticales distintas.
1.1 SO
SO intensifica adjetivos y adverbios (palabras sin sustantivo inmediatamente después).
| Estructura | Ejemplo |
|---|---|
| so + adjetivo | She is so beautiful. (Es tan guapa.) |
| so + adverbio | He runs so fast. (Corre tan rápido.) |
| so much/many/little/few + sustantivo | I have so many friends. / I have so much work. |
Regla clave: si solo hay un adjetivo (sin sustantivo después), se usa so.
-
The building is so high. (No hay sustantivo detrás de «high».)
-
Why are you so sad?
-
You shouldn't eat so fast.
-
Albert was so close to finding out the truth.
1.2 SUCH
SUCH intensifica sustantivos o adjetivo + sustantivo.
| Estructura | Ejemplo |
|---|---|
| such a/an + (adj) + sust. contable singular | It was such a cold night. |
| such + (adj) + sust. no contable | It was such wonderful weather. |
| such + (adj) + sust. contable plural | They have such great friends. |
Regla clave: en cuanto hay un sustantivo visible, se usa such (+ artículo si el nombre es singular contable).
-
He was such a rich man.
-
It was such good news! («news» es incontable → sin artículo)
-
In California we don't usually have such good weather. («weather» incontable)
-
I've never heard such a foolish idea.
-
I've never smelt such a disgusting scent.
-
He has got such strange manners. («manners» plural)
-
I had such a lot of work I couldn't go out.
1.3 Tabla resumen SO vs. SUCH
| Lo que sigue | Usa | Artículo |
|---|---|---|
| Adjetivo solo | so | — |
| Adverbio solo | so | — |
| so much/many/little/few | so | — |
| (adj +) sustantivo singular contable | such | a/an |
| (adj +) sustantivo incontable | such | — |
| (adj +) sustantivo plural | such | — |
2. Estructura SO… THAT / SUCH… THAT (resultado/consecuencia)
Cuando queremos expresar una consecuencia, añadimos that + oración de resultado.
| Estructura | Ejemplo |
|---|---|
| so + adj/adv + that + oración | The tree was so tall that the birds couldn't fly to the top. |
| such (a/an) + (adj) + sust. + that + oración | They have such a big house that I got lost! |
Más ejemplos:
-
World War I was so terrible that they called it «The war that would end all wars».
-
She was so small that she could go through the keyhole easily.
-
He was moving so fast that we could barely see him.
-
She works so quickly that she is always the first to finish.
-
She was so torn that she flipped a coin.
-
He was so strong that he could almost lift a car by himself.
Atención: nunca se usa «very… that», «so… as» ni «as… that» para este resultado.
3. SO con «so much» y «so many»
-
so much + nombre incontable: She has so much money that she doesn't need to work.
-
so many + nombre contable plural: I've never seen so many people at a concert.
-
so little + incontable / so few + plural (cantidad escasa).
Contraste con such:
- We don't know where to put so many stamps, you have such a big collection!
4. Exclamaciones: WHAT y HOW
Las exclamaciones pueden construirse con What o How; la elección depende de si hay sustantivo o no.
4.1 WHAT (¡Qué…!)
Se usa cuando la exclamación lleva sustantivo.
| Estructura | Ejemplo |
|---|---|
| What a/an + (adj) + sust. sg. contable + (suj. + v.) | What a long trip! / What a happy coincidence it is! |
| What + (adj) + sust. plural/incontable | What nice restaurants there are here! / What unusual clothes! |
Ejemplos adicionales:
-
What a show, it was so funny! (sustantivo «show» singular)
-
What an awful meal they serve! («awful» empieza por vocal → «an»)
-
What a made-up story you told us!
-
What a great dinner you've made, John!
-
What a pleasant weekend we had!
-
What a masterpiece it is!
-
What nice restaurants there are here!
4.2 HOW (¡Qué…! con adjetivos y adverbios)
Se usa cuando no hay sustantivo (solo adjetivo o adverbio).
| Estructura | Ejemplo |
|---|---|
| How + adj + (suj. + v.) | How terrible this war is! |
| How + adv + (suj. + v.) | How late he always arrives! |
Ejemplos:
-
How hot it is in this place!
-
How tall those boys are!
-
How handsome your brother is!
-
How well you've learnt your lesson!
-
How silly of me to lose my passport! («silly» es adjetivo solo)
-
How fast that rabbit got away!
-
How easily he climbs that wall!
-
How lovely this lamb is!
-
How expensive your shoes are!
-
How amazing this video game is!
-
How fantastic the view was!
-
How stupid it was to go there!
-
How little she is!
4.3 Regla de oro: WHAT vs. HOW
| ¿Hay sustantivo? | Usa | ¿Artículo? |
|---|---|---|
| Sí, singular contable | What a/an | a / an |
| Sí, plural o incontable | What | — |
| No (solo adj/adv) | How | — |
Nunca se dice «How a…» ni «What» sin artículo delante de singular contable.
5. Expresiones de acuerdo: SO DO I / NEITHER DO I
Para expresar que algo también se aplica a otra persona (acuerdo), se usan respuestas cortas con so (afirmativo) o neither/nor (negativo).
5.1 Estructura
| Oración original | Tipo | Respuesta de acuerdo | Ejemplo |
|---|---|---|---|
| Afirmativa | + | So + aux. + sujeto | Susan likes books. So do I. |
| Negativa | − | Neither/Nor + aux. + sujeto | She isn't a teacher. Neither is her mother. |
Reglas fundamentales:
-
El auxiliar debe coincidir con el de la oración original (tiempo verbal).
-
El sujeto va después del auxiliar (inversión obligatoria).
-
Neither y nor son intercambiables al inicio de la respuesta.
-
Nunca se usa «also», «too» o «either» en estas estructuras inversas.
5.2 Acuerdo afirmativo: SO + aux. + sujeto
| Oración | Respuesta |
|---|---|
| He loves walking in the country | and so does his wife. |
| Jenny loves English | So does John. |
| Susan likes books. | So do I. |
| My friend Linda lives close to Lisa's | so do I. |
| He likes to walk on the beach | and so do I. |
| They'll probably do it tomorrow | and so will I. |
| My father has always worked in the forge | and so have I. |
| If you guide them, they'll follow you | and so will I. |
| His studies were very advanced | so were mine. (were = past of «to be») |
| She wasted a lot of time | So did I. |
| He forgot to tell his wife | So did I. |
| He felt very ill after eating | So did I. |
| My mother asked him to buy tomatoes. (afirmación confirmada) | so he did. (énfasis confirmatorio, no inversión de acuerdo) |
5.3 Acuerdo negativo: NEITHER/NOR + aux. + sujeto
| Oración | Respuesta |
|---|---|
| She hasn't got brown hair | neither have her parents. |
| They're not thirsty | neither am I. |
| My sister's never been to Spain | neither has my brother. |
| She isn't a teacher | neither is her mother. |
| You don't like red skirts | neither does Jane. |
| She doesn't know what to do | neither does he. |
| Arthur is not ready to live by himself | neither is his brother. |
| His girlfriend hasn't got a working permit | nor has he. |
| They can't afford a new car | nor can we. |
5.4 Acuerdo con «can»
Se mantiene «can» como auxiliar:
-
If he can do with another whole steak, so can I.
-
She can't dance tonight, and neither can her boyfriend.
5.5 EITHER como alternativa negativa (posición final)
Cuando se responde «tampoco» sin inversión, en oraciones negativas ya formuladas, se usa either al final:
- «Did you see that movie?» «No, I didn't see it either.»
Neither/nor van al inicio + inversión. Either va al final sin inversión.
5.6 Desacuerdo
Cuando no se comparte la situación, simplemente se dice la frase completa o se niega:
-
«He really needs some coffee, but I don't."
-
«I think we don't have the resources.» «I think the same.» (acuerdo de contenido, no de forma)
6. NEITHER… NOR (correlativas negativas)
Se usa para negar dos elementos al mismo tiempo.
| Estructura | Ejemplo |
|---|---|
| neither + elemento A + nor + elemento B | The new car was neither big nor little. |
Contraste: either… or (uno u otro, positivo).
7. Cuadro sinóptico final
| Forma | Uso principal | Ejemplo clave |
|---|---|---|
| so + adj/adv | Intensificador sin sustantivo | She is so beautiful. |
| so… that | Causa-consecuencia (adj/adv) | It was so cold that we froze. |
| so much/many | Cantidad intensa | So many people! |
| such (a/an) + sust. | Intensificador con sustantivo | Such a lovely girl! |
| such… that | Causa-consecuencia (con sust.) | Such a big house that I got lost! |
| What (a/an) + sust. | Exclamación con sustantivo | What a trip! |
| How + adj/adv | Exclamación sin sustantivo | How hot! |
| So + aux. + suj. | Acuerdo afirmativo | So do I. |
| Neither/Nor + aux. + suj. | Acuerdo negativo | Neither does Jane. |
| …either (final) | Negación añadida sin inversión | I didn't see it either. |
| Neither… nor | Doble negación | Neither big nor small. |
Phrasal verbs.
PHRASAL VERBS
1. ¿Qué es un phrasal verb?
Un phrasal verb es la combinación de un verbo + partícula (preposición o adverbio, a veces ambas) que adquiere un significado nuevo, distinto del verbo base.
- Look (mirar) → look after (cuidar) / look for (buscar) / look up (buscar en un diccionario)
Las partículas más frecuentes son: up, down, out, off, on, in, away, back, over, through, around, into, for, after, at.
2. Tipos según separabilidad
2.1 Phrasal verbs separables
El objeto directo puede colocarse entre el verbo y la partícula o después de la partícula. Sin embargo, cuando el objeto es un pronombre (it, them, him…), siempre va en medio.
| Ejemplo con nombre | Ejemplo con pronombre |
|---|---|
| Turn the light off. / Turn off the light. | Turn it off. (nunca «turn off it») |
| Pick the kettle up. / Pick up the kettle. | Pick it up. |
| Wake the baby up. | Wake her up. / Did the bell wake you up? |
| Cut the picture out. | Cut it out. |
| Blow the candles out. | Blow them out. |
2.2 Phrasal verbs inseparables
La partícula nunca se separa del verbo; el objeto siempre va después del conjunto.
-
Look after the children. (cuidar; objeto detrás)
-
Get over an illness. (superar; «I got over my illness», nunca «got my illness over»)
-
Run out of petrol. (quedarse sin)
-
Look for my keys. (buscar)
2.3 Phrasal verbs sin objeto (intransitivos)
No llevan objeto directo.
-
The plane took off. (despegar)
-
The alarm went off. (sonar/dispararse)
-
The car broke down. (averiarse)
3. Listado temático de phrasal verbs por partícula
3.1 Con UP
| Phrasal verb | Significado | Ejemplo |
|---|---|---|
| wake up | despertarse / despertar | Wake her up, she's late. |
| get up | levantarse | He got up early. |
| give up | dejar de / rendirse | I'm going to give up smoking. |
| take up | empezar (afición) / ocupar espacio | She took up yoga. |
| look up | buscar (en diccionario/internet); mirar hacia arriba | We looked up the word in the dictionary. / He looked up and saw a plane. |
| turn up | aparecer / llegar; subir el volumen | Did everybody turn up on time? |
| stand up | levantarse | Alan stood up and walked out. |
| come up with | ocurrírsele / proponer | Can you come up with a better idea? |
| put up | colgar / montar; alojar; soportar | I put some pictures up on the wall. |
| put up with | aguantar / soportar | How do you put up with him? |
| pick up | recoger del suelo; mejorar; aprender | Don't pick it up, it's hot! |
| catch up with | alcanzar / ponerse al día | Alonso soon caught up with the others. |
| keep up (with) | mantener el ritmo / seguir el paso | I can't keep up with you. |
| hurry up | darse prisa | Hurry up, we're late! |
| show off | presumir / lucirse | She loves showing off in front of her neighbours. |
| build up | acumular / desarrollar | He built up a lot of stress. |
| work out | hacer ejercicio; funcionar; resolver | Sergio works out at the gym three times a week. |
| fill out/up | rellenar (formulario) | Please fill out the application form. |
| blow up | explotar; inflar | The mine blew up. |
| knock up | despertar llamando | (menos frecuente en examen) |
3.2 Con DOWN
| Phrasal verb | Significado | Ejemplo |
|---|---|---|
| break down | averiarse (coche, máquina); derrumbarse | Sorry I'm late, the car broke down. |
| look down on | menospreciar | She is always looking down on people. |
| knock down | derribar; atropellar | The police had to knock the door down. |
| sit down | sentarse | Come in and sit down, please. |
| put down | dejar / poner en el suelo; apuntar | Put down your name on the list. |
| turn down | rechazar; bajar el volumen | She turned down the job offer. |
| drop down | (poco frecuente) bajar | — |
| calm down | calmarse | Calm down, there's no need to panic. |
| cut down | reducir | He is trying to cut down on sugar. |
3.3 Con OFF
| Phrasal verb | Significado | Ejemplo |
|---|---|---|
| take off | despegar (avión); quitarse (ropa) | After a long delay the plane finally took off. / Take off your shoes before entering. |
| call off | cancelar | The concert had to be called off. |
| put off | aplazar / posponer | We can't put off making a decision. |
| set off | ponerse en camino / salir | We set off very early to avoid the traffic. |
| go off | sonar (alarma); explotar; echarse a perder | Did you hear the alarm go off? |
| rip off | timar / estafar | I got ripped off calling that 902 number. |
| drive off | marcharse en coche | A woman got into the car and drove off. |
| show off | presumir | She loves showing off. |
| finish off | acabar del todo | I'll finish it off tomorrow. |
| drop off | dejar a alguien en un lugar; quedarse dormido | She was dropped off at the station. |
| run off | huir corriendo | The thief ran off. |
| blow out | apagar soplando | Blow it out (the candle). |
| cut off | cortar / aislar | The village was cut off by the snow. |
| fall off | caerse (de una superficie) | He nearly fell off his bike. |
3.4 Con ON
| Phrasal verb | Significado | Ejemplo |
|---|---|---|
| go on | continuar / seguir | Grandpa went on talking for hours. / Carry on with what you're doing. |
| carry on (with) | continuar | Please carry on with your work. |
| keep on + -ing | seguir haciendo (persistencia) | He keeps on criticising me. The earthquake victim kept on moaning. |
| get on | subir (autobús, tren); llevarse bien; progresar | We couldn't get on the bus. / I must get on with my work. |
| put on | ponerse (ropa); encender; engordar | She put on her coat. |
| hold on | esperar un momento | Hold on, I'll be right back. |
| try on | probarse (ropa) | I tried on a jacket but it didn't fit. |
| take on | asumir (trabajo, responsabilidad) | I wish I hadn't taken on so much work. |
| move on | avanzar / pasar a otra cosa | Let's move on to the next topic. |
| turn on | encender | Turn on the light. |
| live on | vivir de / subsistir | He lives on very little money. |
| go on (bus goes by) | pasar sin parar | Put your hand up or the bus will go by. |
3.5 Con OUT
| Phrasal verb | Significado | Ejemplo |
|---|---|---|
| find out | descubrir / averiguar | The police never found out who committed the murder. / Could you find out what time we need to arrive? |
| make out | entender / descifrar | I don't understand her. Can you make out what she's saying? |
| turn out | resultar (ser) | It turned out that they'd never met. / The weather turned out nice. |
| run out of | quedarse sin | We've run out of milk. / I have run out of sugar. |
| eat out | comer fuera (en restaurante) | We decided to eat out. |
| work out | hacer ejercicio; resolver; resultar bien | He works out at the gym. |
| look out | ¡cuidado! | Look out! There's a car coming. |
| point out | señalar / indicar | She pointed out that the shops would be closed. |
| drop out | abandonar (universidad, curso) | David dropped out after a year. |
| check out | hacer el check-out (hotel) | What time do we have to check out? |
| go out | salir (con pareja); salir (de casa) | How long have you and your boyfriend been going out? |
| cut out | recortar | There was a beautiful picture so I cut it out. |
| stand out | destacar | His performance really stood out. |
| lock out | dejar encerrado fuera | I had no key, so I was locked out. |
| blow out | apagar soplando | Blow it out — the candle. |
| try out | probar / testear | The company is trying out a new system. |
3.6 Con OVER
| Phrasal verb | Significado | Ejemplo |
|---|---|---|
| get over | recuperarse / superar | It took her a week to get over her illness. |
| run over | atropellar | Our cat was run over by a train. |
| knock over | tumbar / atropellar | The car knocked over a man on a bicycle. |
| turn over | dar la vuelta | Turn over the page. |
| look over | revisar | Let me look over the report. |
| trip over | tropezar con | He trips over his own shoe laces. |
3.7 Con BACK
| Phrasal verb | Significado | Ejemplo |
|---|---|---|
| come back | volver | Eva is leaving tomorrow and coming back on Saturday. |
| bring back | devolver / traer de vuelta | All library books must be brought back before June. |
| go back | volver | We went back home. |
| run away | huir / escaparse | Why did you run away from me? |
3.8 Con IN / INTO
| Phrasal verb | Significado | Ejemplo |
|---|---|---|
| check in | hacer el check-in (hotel/aeropuerto) | As soon as I got to the airport, I checked in. |
| move in | mudarse (a una nueva casa) | I've got a new flat, I'm moving in on Friday. |
| let yourself in | entrar uno mismo (con llave) | Here's a key, so you can let yourself in. |
| get in/into | entrar (en coche, edificio) | The thieves got in. / A woman got into the car. |
| drop in | pasar a visitar de improviso | I dropped in to see Eric on my way home. |
| take in | engañar / embaucar | The man said he was a policeman — I was completely taken in. |
| plug in | enchufar | The fridge isn't working because you haven't plugged it in. |
| fall in love | enamorarse | She fell in love immediately. |
| break in | entrar a la fuerza; interrumpir | Burglars broke in last night. |
3.9 Con AFTER / FOR / AT / ACROSS / AROUND / THROUGH
| Phrasal verb | Significado | Ejemplo |
|---|---|---|
| look after | cuidar | Please, look after the children. |
| look for | buscar | I am looking for my keys. |
| look at | mirar (dirigir la vista a) | The girl looked at the snowflakes falling from the sky. |
| look up to | admirar / respetar | Children look up to their parents. |
| wait for | esperar a alguien/algo | The boy was waiting for his girlfriend. |
| come across | encontrarse con (por casualidad) | I came across an interesting book at the library. |
| go through | pasar por / sufrir | I shall never forget what my grandparents went through. |
| hang around | pasar el tiempo / andar por ahí | Jim loves hanging around with his friends. |
| get around | moverse / rodear | (cómo se las arregló para) |
| belong to | pertenecer a | This briefcase belongs to my brother. |
| rely on | confiar en / depender de | You can rely on me. |
| get rid of | deshacerse de | Why are you getting rid of your car? |
| listen to | escuchar | My parents were listening to the news. |
4. Phrasal verbs de alta frecuencia en exámenes (clasificados por significado)
Viajes y transporte
| Phrasal verb | Significado | Ejemplo |
|---|---|---|
| get on (bus/train/plane) | subir a | You should get on the plane now. |
| get off (bus/train) | bajar de | Sarah got on the bus and sat in front of me. |
| get into/out of (coche) | entrar/salir del coche | A woman got into the car and drove off. |
| take off | despegar (avión) | The plane finally took off after a long delay. |
| set off | partir / ponerse en camino | We set off early to avoid traffic. |
| check in | facturar / registrarse | As soon as I arrived, I checked in. |
| check out | dejar el hotel | What time do we have to check out? |
| drive on | seguir conduciendo | Shall we drive on to the next petrol station? |
| go by | pasar de largo | Put your hand up or the bus will go by. |
Ropa y aspecto
| Phrasal verb | Significado | Ejemplo |
|---|---|---|
| put on | ponerse (ropa) | She put on her coat. |
| take off | quitarse (ropa) | Take off your shoes before entering the mosque. |
| try on | probarse | I tried on a jacket but it didn't fit. |
Comunicación y relaciones
| Phrasal verb | Significado | Ejemplo |
|---|---|---|
| fall out | pelearse / romper la amistad | They used to be great friends but they have fallen out. |
| split up | separarse (pareja) | John and Karen split up a year ago. |
| make up | reconciliarse; inventar; maquillarse | She's old enough to make up her own mind. |
| going out (with) | salir con (pareja) | How long have you been going out? |
| see off | despedir (en la estación/aeropuerto) | We went to the station to see her off. |
| make fun of | reírse de / burlarse de | Stop making fun of her. |
| stand for | significar / representar (siglas) | What does V.A.T. stand for? / NATO stands for «North Atlantic Treaty Organisation». |
| look up to | admirar | She has always looked up to her mentor. |
| look down on | menospreciar | She looks down on people who aren't as rich. |
Fuego y electricidad
| Phrasal verb | Significado | Ejemplo |
|---|---|---|
| put out | apagar (incendio) | We managed to put out the fire. |
| blow out | apagar soplando | You can blow it out (the candle). / The kid blew out all the candles. |
| go out | apagarse | Put a log on the fire before it goes out. |
| go off | sonar (alarma); dispararse (bomba) | Did you hear the alarm go off? |
| plug in | enchufar | You haven't plugged it in. |
| turn on/off | encender/apagar | Turn on the light. / Turn off the TV. |
Salud
| Phrasal verb | Significado | Ejemplo |
|---|---|---|
| get over | recuperarse de | It took her a week to get over her illness. |
| come down with | caer enfermo de | She is coming down with a cold. |
| keep on + -ing | seguir (sin parar) | The injured person kept on moaning all night. |
Estudios y trabajo
| Phrasal verb | Significado | Ejemplo |
|---|---|---|
| drop out | abandonar los estudios | David dropped out of university after a year. |
| look up | buscar (en diccionario) | We looked up the word in the dictionary. |
| find out | descubrir | Could you find out what time we arrive? |
| carry on (with) | continuar | Please carry on with what you're doing. |
| get on (with) | progresar con / ponerse a | I must get on with my work. |
| take on | asumir (responsabilidad) | I wish I hadn't taken on so much work. |
| give up | dejar / rendirse | I'm going to give up drinking beer. |
| work out | hacer ejercicio; resolver | He works out three times a week. |
5. Posición del pronombre en phrasal verbs separables
Esta es una de las reglas más preguntadas en examen:
-
Verbo + objeto NOMBRE + partícula: Turn the light off. ✓
-
Verbo + partícula + objeto NOMBRE: Turn off the light. ✓
-
Verbo + objeto PRONOMBRE + partícula: Turn it off. ✓ (obligatorio)
-
Verbo + partícula + PRONOMBRE:Turn off it.✗ (incorrecto)
Más ejemplos:
-
Did the bell wake you up? ✓ (pronombre «you» en medio)
-
Pick it up! ✓
-
The kid blew out all the candles / blew them out. ✓
-
I cut it out. ✓
6. Phrasal verbs con múltiples significados (polisemia)
Algunos phrasal verbs tienen varios significados según el contexto:
| Phrasal verb | Significado 1 | Significado 2 |
|---|---|---|
| take off | quitarse ropa | despegar (avión) |
| go off | sonar (alarma) | echarse a perder (comida) / explotar |
| put on | ponerse ropa | encender (TV) / engordar |
| get on | subir a transporte | llevarse bien / progresar |
| look up | buscar en diccionario | mirar hacia arriba |
| turn out | resultar (ser) | apagar (luz) |
| call off | cancelar | — |
| put off | aplazar | disgustar / repeler |
| come across | encontrar por casualidad | dar la impresión de |
7. Lista maestra de los phrasal verbs más frecuentes en el examen de Policía Nacional
| Phrasal verb | Traducción principal |
|---|---|
| look after | cuidar |
| look for | buscar |
| look up | buscar (diccionario) / mirar hacia arriba |
| look out | ¡cuidado! |
| look up to | admirar |
| look down on | menospreciar |
| look ahead | mirar hacia delante |
| look at | mirar |
| give up | dejar / abandonar |
| take off | despegar / quitarse |
| take on | asumir |
| take in | engañar |
| put off | aplazar |
| put on | ponerse / encender |
| put out | apagar |
| put up with | aguantar |
| break down | averiarse |
| break in | entrar a la fuerza |
| run out of | quedarse sin |
| run over | atropellar |
| run away | huir |
| set off | salir / ponerse en marcha |
| go off | sonar (alarma) / explotar |
| go on | continuar |
| go through | pasar por / sufrir |
| get on | subir / progresar |
| get off | bajar (transporte) |
| get over | recuperarse |
| get rid of | deshacerse de |
| get in/into | entrar |
| find out | descubrir |
| turn out | resultar |
| turn up | aparecer / subir volumen |
| turn down | rechazar / bajar volumen |
| turn around | darse la vuelta |
| come back | volver |
| come across | encontrar por casualidad |
| come up with | proponer / inventar |
| come in | entrar |
| call off | cancelar |
| fall out | pelearse |
| drop out | abandonar (estudios) |
| drop in | visitar de improviso |
| eat out | comer fuera |
| check in | registrarse |
| check out | salir del hotel |
| see off | despedir |
| split up | separarse |
| stand for | significar (siglas) |
| stand up | levantarse |
| keep on | seguir (persistencia) |
| keep up with | mantener el ritmo |
| carry on (with) | continuar |
| try on | probarse ropa |
| try out | probar / experimentar |
| move in | mudarse |
| work out | hacer ejercicio / resolver |
| fill out/in | rellenar (formulario) |
| plug in | enchufar |
| blow out | apagar soplando |
| knock over | tumbar / atropellar |
| rely on | confiar en |
| belong to | pertenecer a |
| wait for | esperar a |
| hang around | pasar el tiempo |
| show off | presumir |
| trip over | tropezar con |
| point out | señalar / indicar |
| lock out | dejar fuera sin llave |
| make out | descifrar / entender |
| make fun of | burlarse de |
| make up | reconciliarse; inventar |
| rip off | timar / estafar |
| go out | salir; apagarse |
| going out (with) | salir con (pareja) |
| cut out | recortar |
| bring back | devolver |
Make/do, lend/borrow. Easily confused word.
MAKE / DO, LEND / BORROW Y PALABRAS FÁCILMENTE CONFUNDIDAS
1. MAKE vs. DO
Make y do son los dos verbos causativos básicos del inglés, pero en español ambos se traducen frecuentemente como «hacer». Su uso está determinado por convención y por una serie de reglas generales.
1.1 Regla general
| Verbo | Idea principal | Clave mnemotécnica |
|---|---|---|
| MAKE | Crear, producir, fabricar, provocar un resultado | «Se fabrica o surge algo nuevo» |
| DO | Realizar una actividad, trabajo o tarea | «Se ejecuta una acción, tarea o deber» |
1.2 Colocaciones con MAKE
MAKE se usa cuando hay creación, producción o resultado.
| Expresión | Traducción | Ejemplo |
|---|---|---|
| make a decision | tomar una decisión | I have made a decision. / You have to make a decision. |
| make a mistake | cometer un error | I think you made a mistake in exercise 2. |
| make an effort | hacer un esfuerzo | Make an effort, do you think you can do it? |
| make a comment / make comments | hacer un comentario | The director refused to make comments on the performance. |
| make an appointment | pedir/concertar una cita | I forgot to make an appointment with the doctor. |
| make a promise | hacer una promesa | Less promises should have been made after the elections. |
| make progress | progresar | She is making progress. |
| make money | ganar dinero (en sentido amplio, generar) | We make high-tech products here. |
| make a phone call | hacer una llamada telefónica | Can I make a phone call? |
| make a bed | hacer la cama | Make your own bed! |
| make coffee/tea/dinner | preparar café/té/cena | I'm going to the kitchen to make some coffee. / She agreed to make the dinner. |
| make someone + adj/verb | provocar que alguien se sienta / haga algo | Those films make me cry. / Why do you keep making him angry? |
| make something possible | hacer posible algo | We'll make it possible. |
| make up your mind | decidirse / tomar una decisión | She's old enough to make up her own mind. |
| make by (pasiva) | fabricado por | Who was the tea made by? It tastes disgusting. |
| make (producir/fabricar) | fabricar | We make high-tech products here. |
| make (forced causative) | hacer que (causa) | Those clowns make me laugh. |
1.3 Colocaciones con DO
DO se usa para actividades, trabajos y tareas, especialmente cuando el resultado no es un objeto tangible nuevo.
| Expresión | Traducción | Ejemplo |
|---|---|---|
| do homework | hacer los deberes | When I was a kid, I always did my homework. / Tom does his homework after lunch. |
| do housework | hacer las tareas del hogar | Did your daughter do all the housework by herself? |
| do the dishes | fregar los platos | After lunch, my mother usually does the dishes. |
| do the shopping | hacer la compra | María is going to do the shopping. |
| do the cooking | cocinar | Who does the cooking in your house? |
| do yoga / exercise / sport | hacer yoga / ejercicio / deporte | Where did you do yoga this morning? |
| do well / badly | hacerlo bien / mal | How did you do in the exam? |
| do nothing | no hacer nada | These days he does nothing except sleep. |
| do the right thing | hacer lo correcto | You must do the right thing. |
| do someone a favour | hacer un favor a alguien | Can you do me a favour? |
| do business | hacer negocios | They do business all over the world. |
| do research | investigar | Scientists do research every day. |
| do (= llevar a cabo una actividad) | — | As much as I insist, they still don't know how to do the job properly. |
| done by (pasiva) | hecho por (en pasiva con actividad/proceso) | The letter has been done by my teacher. (pero: «made by» para objetos creados) |
1.4 Cuadro comparativo MAKE vs. DO
| Categoría | MAKE | DO |
|---|---|---|
| Crear/fabricar algo | make a product, make coffee | — |
| Causa → resultado emocional | make me cry, make him angry | — |
| Tareas del hogar | make the bed, make dinner | do the dishes, do the housework, do the shopping |
| Deberes/trabajo académico | — | do homework, do an exam |
| Deporte/ejercicio | — | do yoga, do exercise |
| Comunicación/decisión | make a decision, make a comment, make a promise | do a speech (menos común) |
| Error | make a mistake | — |
| Esfuerzo | make an effort | — |
| Cita | make an appointment | — |
| Progreso | make progress | — |
| Nada / algo no tangible | — | do nothing, do well |
1.5 Truco para el examen
-
Si puedes «producir» o «crear» algo → MAKE.
-
Si es una «tarea» o «actividad» → DO.
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En caso de duda, revisa la lista de colocaciones (son fijas por convención).
2. LEND vs. BORROW
Amobas palabras se traducen en español como «prestar» o «pedir prestado», pero la dirección de la transferencia es opuesta.
2.1 Regla fundamental
| Verbo | Quién lo usa | Dirección | Ejemplo |
|---|---|---|---|
| LEND (lend – lent – lent) | El que cede el objeto | Yo → tú | My sister lent me some money. (Mi hermana me prestó dinero.) |
| BORROW | El que recibe el objeto | Tú → yo | Can I borrow your pen? (¿Me prestas tu bolígrafo?) |
2.2 Estructura
-
lend + objeto + to + persona: Can I lend this book to you?
-
lend + persona + objeto: Can I lend you this book?
-
borrow + objeto + from + persona: I borrowed money from my sister.
2.3 Ejemplos clave
-
I need to write something. Can I borrow your pen? (Soy yo quien lo pide → borrow)
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I didn't have enough money so my sister lent me some. (La hermana da → lent, pasado de lend)
-
Not borrowing money from friends is the best advice. (el que recibe → borrowing)
2.4 Regla mnemotécnica
LEND = dar prestado → el objeto sale de mí hacia otro.
BORROW = pedir prestado → el objeto llega a mí desde otro.
3. Otras palabras fácilmente confundidas (Easily confused words)
3.1 WIN vs. EARN
| Verbo | Uso | Ejemplo |
|---|---|---|
| WIN | Ganar en una competición, juego, lotería | My neighbours have just won the lottery! |
| EARN | Ganar dinero mediante trabajo | Daniel is going to earn a good salary. |
-
Win → competición, suerte, juego.
-
Earn → trabajo, esfuerzo, salario.
3.2 MISS vs. LOSE
| Verbo | Uso | Ejemplo |
|---|---|---|
| MISS | Perder (tren, autobús, oportunidad, clase); echar de menos | Lidia overslept and almost missed the bus. |
| LOSE | Perder un objeto; perder (partido, guerra) | I can't find my wallet! I must have lost it! |
-
Miss → perder algo puntual (transporte, cita), echar de menos.
-
Lose → extraviar un objeto, ser derrotado.
3.3 MAKE vs. DO (ya desarrollado en sección 1)
3.4 LEND vs. BORROW (ya desarrollado en sección 2)
3.5 ALIVE vs. LIVE vs. LIFE
| Palabra | Función | Ejemplo |
|---|---|---|
| alive (adj predicativo) | Predicado (después del verbo); con vida | What a time to be alive! |
| live (adj atributivo /laɪv/) | Antes del sustantivo: en directo, en vivo | a live concert |
| life (sust.) | Sustantivo | Life is beautiful. |
-
Alive va siempre después del verbo (predicativo): «to be alive», «to stay alive»; nunca «an alive person».
-
No confundir con el verbo to live /lɪv/ (vivir).
3.6 ASLEEP vs. SLEEP vs. SLEEPY
| Palabra | Uso | Ejemplo |
|---|---|---|
| asleep (adj predicativo) | Dormido (estado); siempre predicativo | Sorry I didn't hear you, I was asleep. / Shh! My mother is asleep. |
| sleep (verbo/sust.) | Dormir / el sueño | I need to sleep. |
| sleepy (adj) | Con sueño / somnoliento | I'm sleepy. |
- Asleep va siempre después del verbo; nunca «an asleep person» sino «a sleeping person» o «he was asleep».
3.7 ALONE vs. ONLY vs. JUST vs. LONELY
| Palabra | Uso | Ejemplo |
|---|---|---|
| alone | Sin compañía (hecho neutro); en solitario | Can you please leave? I want to be alone. / Children can't use the lift alone. |
| lonely | Solo (con connotación triste, sintiéndose solo) | He felt lonely in the big city. |
| only | Solo / únicamente (adjetivo/adverbio de restricción) | She is the only one who knows. |
| just | Solo / justo / hace un momento (adverbio) | I've just arrived. / He just wanted to help. |
-
Alone (sin nadie) ≠ lonely (sintiéndose solo emocionalmente).
-
Only y just son adverbios de restricción/énfasis, no describen el estado de soledad.
3.8 AGREE (verbo) — «estar de acuerdo»
En inglés, agree es un verbo pleno, NO un adjetivo.
-
✓ «I agree with you.» → correcto.
-
✗ «I am agree with you.» → incorrecto (traducción literal del español).
-
✓ «Regarding the solution, I totally agree with you."
Contraste:
-
Agree (verbo) = estar de acuerdo.
-
Agreement (sust.) = acuerdo, convenio.
3.9 SAY vs. TELL
| Verbo | Uso | Ejemplo |
|---|---|---|
| SAY | Decir algo (sin receptor obligatorio) | He said «hello». / She said that she was tired. |
| TELL | Decir algo A alguien (receptor obligatorio) | He told me that he was tired. / Tell the truth. |
-
Tell siempre lleva objeto personal: tell me, tell him, tell the truth, tell a story.
-
Say puede ir sin objeto o con «to + persona»: say to me, say something.
3.10 BRING vs. TAKE
| Verbo | Uso | Ejemplo |
|---|---|---|
| BRING | Traer (hacia el hablante o el lugar actual) | Bring me the report. / All library books must be brought back before June. |
| TAKE | Llevar (alejándose del hablante) | Take your coat! It's cold. / She likes taking photos. |
-
Bring = movimiento hacia «aquí».
-
Take = movimiento hacia «allá».
3.11 MAKE vs. DO en pasiva
La elección entre made y done en voz pasiva sigue la misma lógica:
-
Objeto creado/producido → made by: Who was the tea made by? / The chicken was made by the chef.
-
Tarea/actividad → done by: The letter has been done by my teacher and read by the children.
3.12 COST / DO / MAKE con preguntas sobre precio
-
How much does it cost? → correcto (no «How much makes it?»).
-
cost es el verbo para expresar precio, no make ni do.
3.13 BE vs. MAKE/DO con estados y clima
Los estados físicos y meteorológicos usan BE, no make ni do:
-
It is really cold today. (no «it makes cold»)
-
I am 25 years old. (no «I have 25»)
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I am hungry. (no «I have hungry» — error de influencia del español)
4. Resumen visual: pares más confundidos
| Par | Regla clave |
|---|---|
| make / do | Make = crear/resultado; Do = actividad/tarea |
| lend / borrow | Lend = cedo; Borrow = recibo |
| win / earn | Win = competición; Earn = trabajo |
| miss / lose | Miss = perder transporte o echar de menos; Lose = extraviar |
| alive / live / life | alive = predicativo (estar vivo); live = adj. «en vivo»; life = sustantivo |
| asleep / sleepy / sleep | asleep = predicativo (dormido); sleepy = con sueño |
| alone / lonely / only / just | alone = sin compañía; lonely = solo (tristeza); only/just = únicamente |
| agree | VERBO, no adjetivo → «I agree» (nunca «I am agree») |
| say / tell | say = decir; tell = decir A alguien |
| bring / take | bring = traer aquí; take = llevar allá |
| be (clima/edad) | «It is cold» / «I am 25» → nunca make/do |
4. HAVE + comidas (colocaciones)
El verbo have se usa en inglés para expresar la acción de tomar o comer las comidas del día y otros alimentos o bebidas, donde el español diría «desayunar», «almorzar» o «cenar»:
| Colocación | Traducción |
|---|---|
| have breakfast | desayunar |
| have lunch | almorzar / comer |
| have dinner | cenar |
| have a meal | tomar una comida |
| have a snack | tomar un tentempié |
| have a drink | tomar algo (bebida) |
| have a cup of tea/coffee | tomar un té/café |
-
We had breakfast at 7 a.m. before leaving. ✓
-
Let's have lunch together tomorrow. ✓
-
They usually have dinner at 9 o'clock. ✓
-
I'd like to have a coffee, please. ✓
Nunca se usa make, do ni eat con «breakfast/lunch/dinner» en el sentido de consumirlas:
I did breakfast✗,I made lunch✗ (make lunch = preparar la comida; have lunch = comerla).
- She made lunch for the whole family. (la preparó)
- She had lunch at noon. (la comió)