Tiempos Verbales en Inglés

El sistema verbal del inglés se organiza en torno a tres grandes ejes temporales (presente, pasado y futuro), cada uno con formas simples, continuas (continuous o progressive), perfectas (perfect) y perfectas continuas (perfect continuous). Dominar cuándo se usa cada una es esencial para la oposición.

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1. Presente Simple (Present Simple)

Formación

La 3.ª persona del singular añade -s o -es (verbos terminados en -ch, -sh, -x, -o, -s): watches, goes, mixes.

Usos principales

1. Hábitos y rutinas (con adverbios de frecuencia: always, usually, often, sometimes, never):

• I usually have dinner at six o'clock. (El adverbio va entre el sujeto y el verbo principal.)

• Mary works hard every day.

• I don't usually listen to music when I go for a walk.

• Jimmy is always on time.

2. Verdades generales y hechos permanentes:

• Oak trees grow very slowly.

• The last movie of the Lord of the Rings lasts more than three hours.

3. Estado actual con verbos de estado (stative verbs: have, know, believe, like, love, hate, want, need, seem). Estos verbos no se usan en forma continua:

• My house has four rooms.

• She has got two houses in Cuba.

• I know how to solve that kind of problem. (→ I have never learnt how to solve... en perfect)

• Currently, they have enough money for the concert.

4. Tras conjunciones temporales y condicionales que se refieren al futuro (when, if, as soon as, until, before, after):

• You can see my pictures when you come back tonight. (NO when you will come back)

5. Preguntas con did en pasado: la forma del verbo principal vuelve a la base:

• What did she do last week for her birthday?

• Did the teacher say anything about the last exams?

• Does she play volleyball?

Posición del adverbio de frecuencia

El adverbio de frecuencia va antes del verbo principal pero después del verbo auxiliar o copulativo (be):

• I don't usually listen… (antes del verbo principal)

• He is always on time. (después de be)

• She was always right. → My mother is always right. (No se dice has reason; en inglés se dice to be right, no to have reason.)

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2. Presente Continuo (Present Continuous / Present Progressive)

Formación

am / is / are + verbo-ing

• She is working at the moment but she finishes at 6.

• They always grow flowers but this year they are growing vegetables.

Usos principales

1. Acción en desarrollo en el momento de hablar:

• She is working at the moment.

2. Tendencia temporal o situación que cambia (contraste con el hábito del present simple):

• They always grow flowers but this year they are growing vegetables.

3. Planes futuros acordados (con referencia temporal explícita o implícita):

• I am going to travel to Paris next Monday. (→ ver futuro con going to)

Nota importante: Los verbos de estado (stative verbs) no se usan en continuo. En inglés no se dice it is very wind ni it does wind; el tiempo atmosférico se expresa con el adjetivo windy y el verbo be: it is windy.

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3. Pasado Simple (Past Simple)

Formación

• Verbos regulares: base + -ed (worked, listened, stayed).

• Verbos irregulares: forma propia de cada verbo (segunda columna de la tabla de irregulares).

¡Atención! Los verbos irregulares no añaden -ed. Nunca: hearded, gaved, becomed, dugged.

Usos principales

1. Acción completada en un momento concreto del pasado (con marcadores: yesterday, last night/week/year, ago, in 1999, when I was young):

• I gave her the keys yesterday.

• My father fell and broke his arm on the street. (dos acciones coordinadas en pasado)

• Bob came home late last night.

• What time did he get up yesterday?

• In the past most young boys became farmers.

• Most of Frankfurt's old buildings were destroyed in the last world war.

2. Serie de acciones pasadas (coordinadas con and):

• My grandmother fell and broke her leg. (NO fallen ni broken tras and)

3. Negación e interrogación con did + infinitivo:

• I didn't drink any beer last night. (NO hadn't drunk si es un evento concreto sin referencia anterior)

• I didn't watch TV yesterday.

• I didn't answer the phone because I was having a job interview.

Expresiones temporales del Past Simple

Diferencia clave: ago va con past simple; since y for (referidos a un periodo que llega al presente) van con present perfect.

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4. Pasado Continuo (Past Continuous / Past Progressive)

Formación

was / were + verbo-ing

Usos principales

1. Acción en desarrollo en un momento concreto del pasado:

• Mr Black wasn't working in his study when the murder happened.

• I was washing my hair when my mother tried to call me.

2. Acción de fondo interrumpida por otra (la acción puntual va en past simple):

• The children were playing basketball when it started to rain.

• I couldn't answer the phone because I was having a job interview.

• I dug the grave while the corpse was still warm.

3. Pregunta sobre el pasado con lugar:

• Where were Judy and Liz at last month's meeting?

Clave: when introduce la acción puntual (past simple); while introduce la acción en desarrollo (past continuous).

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5. Presente Perfecto (Present Perfect)

Formación

have / has + participio pasado

• I have seen that letter.

• She has got two houses in Cuba.

Usos principales

1. Experiencias pasadas sin tiempo definido (con ever, never, before):

• Boys, have you ever eaten red ants?

• I have never learnt how to solve that kind of problem.

• "Have you seen 'Inglorious Bastards'?" "No, I haven't seen any of Tarantino's movies."

• It's the third time you've been to France.

2. Acción reciente con relevancia en el presente (con just, already, yet):

• Oh, no! I've lost the project report!

• I have already finished the repairs.

• The tractor engine has broken down twice this week.

• This issue has been brought up by the employees during the meeting.

3. Duración desde el pasado hasta el presente (con for y since):

• Mr. Ramis has worked here for 30 years.

• I have known Barbara for over twenty years.

• We have been here for two weeks.

• You haven't studied French for ten years.

• I haven't written to my grandma since last year.

• How long have you lived in Russia?

Regla: for + duración (for 30 years); since + punto de inicio (since 2010, since last year).

4. Superlativo + ever (con past perfect si la referencia es pasada):

• These are the glasses I have always worn.

• That was the worst soup I 'd ever tasted.

• That was the easiest situation I had ever been in.

Marcadores del Present Perfect

Diferencia con el Past Simple: El present perfect se usa cuando NO se especifica un momento concreto o cuando el periodo continúa hasta el presente. El past simple se usa cuando se menciona un momento concreto: Mozart wrote more than 600 pieces (vivió y murió; es pasado completo y cerrado).

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6. Pasado Perfecto (Past Perfect)

Formación

had + participio pasado

Usos principales

El past perfect expresa una acción anterior a otra acción pasada (el «pasado del pasado»):

• The sun had already set when my father got home from work.

• When I got to the office, I realized that I had forgotten to lock the front door.

• When Sean arrived, he realized he had forgotten the present.

• He had closed the gate before the helicopter took off.

• The employees had never used such machinery before.

• When I entered the library, I remembered that I had left my books at home.

• Julie didn't arrive until after I had left.

• Mary had bought a box of chocolates for my birthday when I saw her at the mall.

• She was wonderful yesterday. She had never played football better.

• Nobody knew how much he had drunk.

• He told me that he had done all the work himself.

• That was the worst soup I had ever tasted.

• By the time he gets out of jail, he will have forgotten how to function... (→ futuro perfecto)

Clave: Si se mencionan dos acciones pasadas y una precedió a la otra, la más antigua va en past perfect y la más reciente en past simple.

Negativa del Past Perfect

had not (hadn't) + participio:

• The employees hadn't used / had never used such machinery before. (NO hadn't never — doble negativo incorrecto)

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7. Used to — Hábitos y estados del pasado

Formación

used to + infinitivo (interrogativa y negativa con did)

¡Atención! En interrogativa/negativa se usa use to (sin -d) porque el -d del pasado ya está en did: Did you use to do...? (NO did you used to do).

Uso

Expresa hábitos o estados del pasado que ya no existen:

• When did you use to do* all your homework when you were a student?*

• In the past, most young boys used to become farmers. (alternativa al past simple)

Importante: Nowadays, many undergraduates go to class by car. (presente → present simple, NO use to go)

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8. Futuro: Will

Formación

will + infinitivo (sin to)

Usos principales

1. Decisión espontánea tomada en el momento de hablar:

• "I forgot my phone." "Don't worry, I 'll lend you mine."

• Will you lend me $10? I promise I'll give it back tomorrow.

2. Predicción sin evidencia actual o con expresiones como I think, probably, with any luck:

• With any luck, they will have reached their destination before nightfall.

• I don't believe you. That can't be true! (modal de deducción negativa)

3. Promesas, amenazas, ofertas:

• Will you drive your car next Sunday, daddy?

4. Futuro programado (no espontáneo) cuando no hay plan previo explícito:

• We will go out at nightfall and we will walk all night. (plan general, predicción)

Forma negativa e interrogativa

• He won't be here tomorrow.

• Will she come to the party?

Sustitutos de can y could para tiempos no disponibles

Can y could carecen de futuro, perfecto e infinitivo propios. En todos esos contextos se sustituyen por be able to:

Regla: Can solo existe en presente (can) y pasado (could). Para cualquier otro tiempo verbal se usa la perífrasis be able to.

• Next year, she will be able to join the police force. (futuro)

• If he trained harder, he would be able to pass the fitness test. (condicional)

• After months of practice, she has been able to speak fluently. (perfecto)

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9. Futuro: Going to

Formación

am / is / are + going to + infinitivo

Usos principales

1. Intención o plan decidido con antelación:

• Marvin is going to throw a party next week.

• I am going to travel to Paris next Monday.

• We are going to have a barbecue tomorrow. It's all planned.

• Is Nadine going to take part in the race?

2. Predicción basada en evidencia visible en el presente:

• You were right one hour ago. It's going to be rainy today.

• I think I'm not going to join the army.

Diferencia will / going to:

• Will → decisión espontánea o predicción sin evidencia.

• Going to → plan previo o predicción con evidencia.

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10. Futuro Continuo (Future Continuous)

Formación

will be + verbo-ing

Uso

Acción que estará en desarrollo en un momento concreto del futuro:

• Don't disturb her. She will be having lunch for the next half an hour.

• He will be living in Madrid next summer.

• This time next year, we will be celebrating because I will have bought my new flat.

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11. Futuro Perfecto (Future Perfect)

Formación

will have + participio pasado

Uso

Acción que se habrá completado antes de un momento futuro determinado:

• By 11 o'clock I 'll have finished the painting.

• With any luck, they will have reached their destination before nightfall.

• By the time he gets out of jail, he will have forgotten how to function in the real world.

• Next month she will have been working in this company for five years. (→ también Future Perfect Continuous)

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12. Futuro Perfecto Continuo (Future Perfect Continuous)

Formación

will have been + verbo-ing

Uso

Expresa la duración de una acción que habrá estado ocurriendo hasta un punto futuro:

• Next month we will have been dating for two years.

• Next month she will have been working in this company for five years.

• You are 30 now; when you retire you will have been working for 50 years.

• This time next year, we will be celebrating / I will have bought my new flat.

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13. Futuro como presente para la voz pasiva

Cuando la acción futura ya está determinada (decisión oficial, sentencia, etc.) se puede usar el presente continuo pasivo o going to pasivo:

• He's been found guilty and is being transferred to a federal prison the day after tomorrow.

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14. Voz Pasiva (Passive Voice)

Formación

verbo to be (en el tiempo correspondiente) + participio pasado

Ejemplos de las preguntas

• A dozen babies are born in this hospital every day.

• Most of Frankfurt's old buildings were destroyed in the last world war.

• This issue has been brought up by the employees during the meeting.

El agente (quien realiza la acción) se introduce con by.

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15. Resumen de marcadores temporales clave

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16. Concordancia verbal: sujetos colectivos y plurales especiales

En inglés, algunos sustantivos que parecen singulares o plurales presentan concordancia especial:

• Sustantivos siempre plurales (wages, clothes, trousers, scissors) → verbo en plural:

• The wages in this factory are very high.

• His clothes were all clean and ironed.

• People es plural (no se dice peoples para referirse a personas en general; peoples = pueblos/culturas):

• There were so many people in the shopping centre that we had to leave.

• News es singular en inglés:

• The news is very exciting. (ver artículo 3 sobre incontables)

• Wages (salarios) → siempre plural:

• The wages in other companies are very low.

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17. Verbos auxiliares: have got vs. have

En inglés británico se usa frecuentemente have got (posesión, estado):

Have got y have (de posesión) son intercambiables en el presente. En pasado solo se usa had: I had a shower this morning.

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18. Expresiones idiomáticas frecuentes en las preguntas

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19. Esquema global de tiempos verbales

PASADO                              PRESENTE                           FUTURO

│                                   │                                   │

Past Perfect   Past Simple   Past Continuous │ Present Simple  Present Continuous │ will / going to (had + pp)     (base-ed/irr) (was/were +ing)  │ (base / -s)    (am/is/are + ing)  │ Future Continuous

│ Present Perfect                    │ Future Perfect

│ (have/has + pp)                    │ Future Perf. Continuous

Los Artículos en Inglés: a, an, the y artículo cero (Ø)

El inglés tiene dos tipos de artículo: el artículo indefinido (a / an) y el artículo definido (the). Junto a ellos existe el llamado artículo cero (Ø), es decir, la ausencia de artículo, que también tiene usos regulados. Un error en el uso del artículo es una de las fuentes más frecuentes de fallos en los exámenes.

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1. Artículo Indefinido: a y an

1.1. Regla fundamental: sonido inicial

La elección entre a y an depende exclusivamente del sonido (no de la letra) con que empieza la palabra siguiente:

• Se usa an antes de sonido vocálico (/a/, /e/, /i/, /o/, /u/).

• Se usa a antes de sonido consonántico (incluida la /j/ de university o la /w/ de one).

Clave mnemotécnica: Lo que cuenta es cómo suena la primera sílaba, no cómo se escribe. Hour empieza con 'h' pero suena /aʊ/, por tanto: an hour. University empieza con 'u' pero suena /juːnɪ/, por tanto: a university.

1.2. Usos del artículo indefinido

a) Primera mención: objeto no identificado

Se usa cuando se nombra algo por primera vez o cuando el hablante y el oyente no han identificado el referente:

• He has a red bike.

• I need to buy an umbrella.

• There is a French girl at our school.

• She works in a hospital.

• I met him while he was riding a horse.

b) Profesiones y cargos (singular)

Con el verbo to be y las profesiones, se usa artículo indefinido en singular:

• Her father is an architect.

• She is a police officer, and he is a shop assistant.

• Jane is a doctor. (pero sus padres, en plural: Her parents were doctors → sin artículo)

• Mary is a nurse.

• Jaime is a legal consultant for the government.

• Peggy's husband is a plumber, and her children are waiters. (plural → Ø)

• Tom and Christine are opticians; Paul is an accountant.

c) Clasificación y descripción genérica

• The plane is a fast means of transport.

• The Council is virtually unknown as an institution.

• I am a democrat.

• Everything is a struggle with my son.

d) Expresiones de cantidad y tiempo

• We will spend a month in London.

• That was a long time ago.

• I have a lamp.

• A day on the beach sounds perfect.

• This situation has been a real nightmare.

e) What + a/an (exclamaciones)

• What an interesting book! (sonido vocal /ɪ/)

• What a nice car! (sonido consonante /n/)

f) Expresiones fijas

• a piece of... (ver sección 4)

• a pair of... → I always have a pair of glasses in my pocket.

• another (= an + other) → Please, let's have another week off!

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2. Artículo Definido: the

El artículo the se pronuncia /ðə/ ante consonante y /ðɪ/ ante vocal. Se usa con sustantivos tanto singulares como plurales.

2.1. Usos principales

a) Referente ya mencionado o conocido por el contexto

Cuando el hablante y el oyente ya saben a qué objeto se refieren:

• You have been watching cartoons for three hours. Please switch the TV off.

• Could you please close the door?

• Be careful with the stairs.

• I don't know where the soap is.

• The soap is near the bath.

• The garbage is near the kitchen.

• The flowers are near the window.

• What happened to the wine I bought yesterday?

• The door is open. / The window is broken.

• Did Julia get the job she applied for?

• What time is the party on Saturday?

b) Objeto único o superlativo

Cuando solo hay uno o es el mejor/peor de su clase:

• What is the name of the hotel?

• I think studying is the best thing you can do.

• Sara is the best student in our class.

• What is the fastest animal in the world?

• I don't like the food they serve in the school cafeteria.

• Did you answer the fifth question? (número ordinal → referencia única)

• Captain Planet was made to protect the environment we live in.

c) Instituciones y conceptos únicos

• My cousin is in the army.

• Once in a while I listen to the radio, but normally I prefer to read the newspaper.

• New York is in the United States.

• Many police officers had to go to the neighbourhood because of the riot.

El artículo con nombres propios:

Se usa the con: nombres de países en plural (the United States, the Netherlands), cadenas montañosas (the Alps), océanos (the Pacific), ríos (the Thames), grupos de islas (the Canary Islands).

NO se usa the con: ciudades (London), países singulares (Spain, France), continentes (Europe), calles.

d) The con adjetivos sustantivados (grupos de personas)

• The homeless were removed from the streets. (= las personas sin hogar)

• The English are strange people. (= los ingleses como pueblo)

e) The con superlativos

• Sara is the best student in our class.

• What is the fastest animal in the world?

f) The con sustantivos referidos específicamente

• The english books you are reading are fantastic. (esos libros concretos)

• I broke the plate that you gave me. (esa bandeja específica que me diste)

• Don't lie to him! Tell him the truth!

• I have the house keys.

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3. Artículo Cero (Ø): sin artículo

El inglés usa el artículo cero (ningún artículo) en los siguientes casos:

3.1. Sustantivos en plural o incontables con sentido genérico

Cuando se habla de una categoría entera, sin especificar:

• Vegetables are good for you. (las verduras en general)

• It is a universal truth that children imitate adults. (en general)

• I don't think they are actors; I would say they are musicians. (profesión en plural)

• James told me that Mary and Susan work as waitresses, but they are also students.

• Tom and Christine are opticians.

3.2. Profesiones en plural

En plural, las profesiones no llevan artículo:

• Jane is a doctor. Her parents were Ø doctors.

• Peggy's husband is a plumber, and her children are Ø waiters.

3.3. Instituciones cuando se refieren a su función principal

• My uncle is in Ø prison. (es preso, está encarcelado → función primaria)

vs. The prison is next to the court. (edificio concreto → the)

3.4. Sustantivos incontables (actividades, materias abstractas)

• Mrs. Johnson gave us a lot of Ø homework.

• I never watch Ø television when I'm having dinner. (actividad en general)

• I forgot my pen. Can I borrow one from you? (sin artículo antes de one cuando sustituye al sustantivo)

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4. A piece of, some y cuantificadores con incontables

Algunos sustantivos son incontables y no admiten artículo indefinido ni plural. Para cuantificarlos se usa a piece of u otros cuantificadores.

4.1. Sustantivos incontables frecuentes en las preguntas

4.2. Usos concretos de las preguntas

• Let me give you some advice: get a good lawyer.

• Thank you for a very useful piece of advice.

• Your colleagues will probably need some advice from you.

• I've just heard a good piece of news on the radio.

• I've just heard an interesting piece of advice from my uncle.

• He only had two pieces of toast and a cup of orange juice for breakfast.

• There is a piece of wall on the floor.

• There was a piece of cake on his plate.

• We only have one piece of luggage, the red Samsonite.

• Those are the only pieces of furniture I really like.

• I always have a pair of glasses in my pocket.

4.3. Some y any

• I have just made some coffee. Can I get you a cup?

• There are some potatoes for dinner.

• We have got some Spanish students in our class.

• Some of these democracies are very young and fragile.

• And still some say that Syria cannot change.

• There are some balls, aren't there?

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5. Casos especiales y errores frecuentes

5.1. Artículo indefinido + adjetivo

El artículo va antes del adjetivo, no después:

• It's a nice house. (NOT it's nice a house)

• An easy problem. (sonido /iː/ → an)

• A beautiful house. (sonido /b/ → a)

• That's an awful truth. (sonido /ɔː/ → an)

5.2. Doble artículo en una oración

Cada sustantivo lleva su propio artículo:

• I met him while he was riding a horse. He seemed an honest person.

• She'll be here in an hour; it's going to be a lovely afternoon.

• A hotel or a university, both are places where people meet each other. (hotel = /h/ consonántica → a; university = /j/ consonántica → a)

• Give me a hammer and an hour and I guarantee I can fix it.

• An eye for an eye, a tooth for a tooth.

• This is a hole I did in just an hour.

5.3. The con nombres que ya conocemos

• What is the name of the hotel? (preguntamos por algo conocido: ese hotel)

• The English books you are reading are fantastic. (esos libros específicos)

• I broke the plate that you gave me. (esa bandeja específica)

5.4. Artículo con radio, television, prison, hospital, army

En el caso de army, the es obligatorio.

5.5. The + superlativo siempre

• Sara is the best student.

• I think studying is the best thing.

• What is the fastest animal in the world?

5.6. Profesión con be: singular vs. plural

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6. Tabla resumen de uso de artículos

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7. Errores típicos que aparecen en las preguntas

Singular, Plural, Contables e Incontables en Inglés

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1. Sustantivos Contables e Incontables

1.1. Sustantivos contables (Countable nouns)

Son aquellos que se pueden contar: admiten singular y plural, y pueden ir precedidos de a/an, números o cuantificadores como many, few, a few.

• a book → two books

• a cat → five cats

• an apple → three apples

1.2. Sustantivos incontables (Uncountable nouns)

No se pueden contar de forma individual. No tienen forma plural (no se añade -s) y no van con a/an ni con números directamente. Para cuantificarlos se usan expresiones de medida.

Sustantivos incontables más importantes en las preguntas

Concordancia verbal: los incontables llevan verbo en singular

• Bad news doesn't always mean disaster.

• The news that I listened to today is very exciting.

• Good news doesn't make people happy.

Cuantificadores con incontables

little vs. a little / few vs. a few

• We have little time to do a lot of things. (time es incontable; things es contable)

• They had little money to buy many presents. (money incontable → little; presents contable → many)

Error frecuente: few money o many money son incorrectos. Money es incontable → little money / much money / a lot of money.

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2. Formación del Plural Regular

La regla general es añadir -s al sustantivo singular.

2.1. Reglas generales

2.2. Tabla de ejemplos de las preguntas

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3. Plurales Irregulares

Estos plurales no siguen ninguna de las reglas anteriores. Hay que aprenderlos de memoria.

3.1. Cambio de vocal interna (vowel mutation)

Nota: man → men / woman → women. Son incorrectos: mans, mens, womens, womans.

3.2. Compuestos con man/woman

3.3. Formas completamente distintas

Importante: people es el plural habitual de person en contexto ordinario:

• There were a lot of people in the pub. (NO persons en lenguaje corriente)

• There are four people at the door.

• There were so many people in the shopping centre.

Persons existe pero se usa en contextos legales o formales muy específicos. Peoples significa «pueblos» (culturas, naciones), no personas.

3.4. Invariables: mismo singular y plural (zero plural)

Algunos sustantivos tienen la misma forma en singular y plural:

¡Atención! Nunca sheeps, fishs, aircrafts.

• A flock of sheep occupied the whole road. (flock = rebaño)

• A lot of sheep were lying on the grass. (plural → were)

• The plane is perhaps the safest means of transport. (NOT mean, ways en este contexto)

3.5. Palabras de origen griego o latino

Algunas palabras conservan su plural latino:

Social media es invariable en inglés moderno:

• Nowadays, companies need to be on social media. (NOT social medias / mediums / medies)

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4. Plurales de Palabras Compuestas

En las palabras compuestas, el plural se forma en el elemento principal (normalmente el primero si es un sustantivo):

La t de tooth no cambia a teeth en compuestos: es toothbrush → toothbrushes, no teethbrushes.

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5. Colectivos y Sustantivos de Grupo

5.1. Clothes (ropa)

Clothes es siempre plural y no tiene singular con ese significado:

• She only likes wearing designer clothes.

• NOT a clothe, a cloth (con ese significado; cloth = tela, diferente)

5.2. Glasses (gafas)

Glasses se usa siempre en plural para las gafas:

• I always have a pair of glasses in my pocket.

• Para cuantificarlos: a pair of glasses.

5.3. Gloves (guantes)

• Take your gloves! (NOT glofs)

5.4. Colectivos de animales

5.5. Calf → calves

• How many calves can a cow have in its life? (NOT calfes, calfs)

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6. Concordancia: Singular o Plural del Verbo

En inglés la concordancia entre sujeto y verbo es estricta.

6.1. Sujeto plural → verbo plural

• There are four people at the door.

• Those policewomen were very good at their job.

• Where do these children live?

• The geese are breeding.

• Those people are waiting for you.

• Were there many glasses on the table? No, there weren't any. (NOT wasn't)

6.2. Sujeto incontable o singular → verbo singular

• The news is very exciting.

• Bad news doesn't always mean disaster.

• Bad news doesn't make people happy.

6.3. There is / There are

• There is a little time left. (incontable o singular)

• There are too many people who cannot pay the mortgage. (plural contable)

• Believe me, there are people who don't eat pizza.

6.4. Sustantivos que terminan en -s pero son singulares

Algunos sustantivos parecen plurales pero son singulares en inglés:

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7. Posesivo con sustantivos en plural: el apóstrofo

La pregunta sobre ladies' ilustra la regla del posesivo sajón:

• Do you remember the "this is the ladies' choice" slogan? (NOT ladys', ladyes')

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8. Cuantificadores: much, many, a lot of, too much, too many

Importante: millions of siempre lleva of cuando va seguido del sustantivo. There were millions of insects plaguing the fields.

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9. Tabla Maestra de Plurales Irregulares

Estructura there is / there are: el verbo «haber» en inglés

En inglés, la existencia de algo se expresa con la construcción there + be, equivalente al verbo «haber» en español (no al verbo «tener»). El verbo be concuerda en número con el sustantivo que le sigue, no con there.

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1. Concordancia: there is vs. there are

Regla práctica: si lo que «hay» es uno (o incontable), usa is; si son varios, usa are.

• There is a calendar on the wall. (un objeto singular)

• There are lots of books on the shelf. (plural)

• There is some milk in the jug. (sustantivo incontable → is)

• There is no tea left. (incontable → is)

Error frecuente en el examen: confundir there (adverbio existencial) con their (posesivo) o con they're (they are). Solo there is / there are expresa existencia.

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2. Formas negativas

La negación se forma añadiendo not al verbo auxiliar:

Negación con no (sin any)

Una alternativa muy natural es usar there is/are + no + sustantivo:

• There is no tea left. I'm sorry. (≈ There isn't any tea left.)

• There is no danger. (≈ There isn't any danger.)

Tanto there isn't any como there is no son correctas; ambas aparecen en los exámenes.

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3. Preguntas (interrogativas)

Para formar preguntas se invierte el orden: el auxiliar se coloca antes de there.

Ejemplos del examen:

• Will there be better weather tomorrow? ✓ (el auxiliar will va antes de there)

• Were there any phone messages yesterday? ✓

• Has there ever been an Australian Pope? ✓ (ever se coloca entre has/have y there)

• Is there anybody interested in applying for this job? ✓ (anybody en preguntas, no somebody)

Preguntas con What y How many / How much

• What was there in the garage? → el auxiliar (was) concuerda con el sujeto real singular implícito.

• How many eggs are there in the fridge? (many para contables en plural)

• Is there much homework left? (much para incontables en singular)

Error habitual: How much days es incorrecto; days es contable → How many days.

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4. Tiempos verbales con there be

La estructura funciona en todos los tiempos. El verbo be adopta la forma correspondiente al tiempo:

4.1 Presente simple

• There is a fly in my soup. / There are millions of people who speak English.

4.2 Pasado simple

• There was a question in the exam that I couldn't answer.

• There were many problems during the festival.

• Ten years ago, there were more shops.

4.3 Presente perfecto (have/has + been)

• There has been a change in the schedule. (singular / incontable)

• There have been many storms this week. (plural)

• There haven't been many football matches on TV lately.

• Since then, there has been no information about their fate.

Regla de concordancia en perfecto: has been → singular/incontable; have been → plural.

4.4 Futuro simple (will be)

• There will be a reception after the wedding.

• Experts say there will be a vaccine in the next months.

Error frecuente: there will being, there will been, there will can be → TODOS incorrectos. Tras will siempre va el infinitivo sin to: will be.

4.5 Futuro con going to

• There are going to be a lot happier days like this. (sujeto plural → are going to)

• Si el sujeto fuera singular: There is going to be a problem.

4.6 Verbos modales + be

Tras un modal (may, might, could, should, must, can) siempre sigue el infinitivo be (nunca been, being, to be):

4.7 Pasado perfecto (had been)

Menos frecuente en el examen, pero posible en oraciones subordinadas:

• Would you tell me if there has been any problem? (oración reportada en presente)

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5. Some y any con there is / there are

Atención: anybody / anyone → singular (Is there anybody interested?); a lot of people → con are there en plural (Are there a lot of people?).

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6. Much vs. many con there is / there are

• Much (incontable, singular): There isn't much chaos. / Is there much homework left?

• Many (contable, plural): There weren't many questions. / How many days are left?

• A lot of (ambos): There are a lot of floors. / There has been a lot of traffic.

Error del examen: There aren't so much animals → incorrecto (animals es contable plural → There aren't so many animals).

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7. Oraciones con resultado: so ... that

Patrón frecuente en el examen:

• There have been so many problems that I had to quit.

La conjunción que introduce la consecuencia es siempre that (nunca what, who, ni which en esta construcción).

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8. There be vs. otras estructuras

There is/are introduce elementos nuevos o indefinidos en el discurso; no se usa con sujetos ya identificados.

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9. Concordancia especial: sujeto compuesto o con «what»

Cuando se pregunta por varias cosas a la vez:

• What was there in the garage? There were many things. → La pregunta puede usar singular si el hablante desconoce la cantidad; la respuesta concuerda con lo hallado.

Cuando el sujeto es compuesto y el primero es singular:

• There are some pencils, a book and a notepad on my desk. → el conjunto es plural → are.

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10. Resumen esquemático

There + be (concordado) + sujeto real + complemento

Singular / incontable → there IS

Plural              → there ARE

Pasado sing.        → there WAS

Pasado plur.        → there WERE

Pres. perf. sing.   → there HAS BEEN

Pres. perf. plur.   → there HAVE BEEN

Futuro              → there WILL BE

Modal               → there [modal] BE

Going to sing.      → there IS GOING TO BE

Going to plur.      → there ARE GOING TO BE

Negación: añadir not al auxiliar (isn't / aren't / wasn't / weren't / hasn't been / haven't been / won't be).

Pregunta: invertir auxiliar y there (Is there? / Are there? / Was there? / Were there? / Has there been? / Have there been? / Will there be?).

Comparativos y superlativos en inglés

En inglés existen tres grados para describir cualidades: el positivo (igual intensidad), el comparativo (mayor, menor o igual) y el superlativo (grado máximo dentro de un grupo).

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1. Formación del comparativo de superioridad

La regla de formación depende del número de sílabas del adjetivo o adverbio.

1.1 Adjetivos y adverbios cortos (1 sílaba, y algunos de 2)

Se añade el sufijo -er al adjetivo + than tras la comparación.

Reglas ortográficas del sufijo -er:

• Adjetivos acabados en -e: solo se añade -r → nice → nicer.

• Adjetivos acabados en consonante-vocal-consonante (CVC): se duplica la consonante final → big → bigger, fat → fatter, hot → hotter, slim → slimmer.

• Adjetivos acabados en -y (precedida de consonante): la -y cambia a -i → sunny → sunnier, funny → funnier, heavy → heavier, easy → easier, healthy → healthier.

1.2 Adjetivos largos (2+ sílabas, con excepciones)

Se añade more delante del adjetivo + than.

Error típico del examen: nunca se usan more y -er simultáneamente: more bigger, more faster, more warmer son incorrectos.

1.3 Adjetivos de 2 sílabas: casos mixtos

Algunos adjetivos de dos sílabas aceptan las dos formas; los exámenes de la PN prefieren la forma con -er:

• clever → cleverer (o more clever)

• narrow → narrower

• quiet → quieter

• simple → simpler

Adjetivos en -y siempre toman -ier (nunca more + -y):

• sunny → sunnier ✓ / more sunny ✗

• funny → funnier ✓

• easy → easier ✓

• happy → happier ✓

• heavy → heavier ✓

1.4 Adverbios

• Adverbios cortos (terminados en consonante): -er + than → fast → faster, hard → harder.

• Adverbios largos (terminados en -ly): more + adverbio + than → quickly → more quickly than, recklessly → more recklessly than.

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2. Formación del superlativo

El superlativo expresa el grado máximo dentro de un grupo y siempre va precedido del artículo the.

2.1 Adjetivos cortos: the + adjetivo + -est

Reglas ortográficas: idénticas a las del comparativo, sustituyendo -er por -est.

2.2 Adjetivos largos: the most + adjetivo

2.3 Adjetivos en -y: the + adjetivo(-y → -iest)

• funny → the funniest → She's the funniest person in the class.

• funny → the funniest → That song was the funniest I had ever heard.

• lucky → the luckiest → Henry is the luckiest person in the world.

• rich → the richest → Who is the richest woman on earth?

Error frecuente: the funnyest, the luckyest, the luckest, the luckiliest → incorrectos.

2.4 Superlativo de adverbios

• He swam as fast as he could. / Usain Bolt ran faster than anyone.

• Of all the girls, Mary speaks the best.

• Max studied the hardest.

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3. Comparativos y superlativos irregulares

Estos son los más importantes y los que más aparecen en el examen:

3.1 Good / well → better → the best

• This restaurant is better than the one we went to yesterday. ✓

• Is it better to be rich or to be popular? ✓ (comparativo, no se compara explícitamente pero implica elección entre dos)

• His skills are much better than ours. ✓ (much intensifica el comparativo)

• Of all the girls in my Spanish class, Mary speaks the best. ✓

• Last week we went to watch a play that was the best I have ever seen. ✓

• John did well in the test, Sally did better, but Miho got the best grade. ✓

Formas incorrectas muy frecuentes en el examen: gooder, goodest, more good, the more good, more better, much best → TODAS incorrectas.

3.2 Bad → worse → the worst

• In my view, cars are worse for the environment than trains. ✓

• Valencia played worse than Real Madrid yesterday. ✓

• That movie was bad, but it wasn't the worst I have ever seen. ✓

• This is the worst food I have ever tasted. ✓

• The weather this summer is even worse than last summer. ✓

• The injuries are worse than I expected. ✓

• Nothing can be worse than this. ✓

• Last night I had the worst nightmare. ✓

Formas incorrectas: badder, the baddest, worser, more bad, the more bad → incorrectas.

3.3 Many / much → more → the most

• You've got way more than I have. ✓

• A C.D. player is more expensive than a T.V., but a camcorder is the most expensive. ✓

• She's got less money than you, but she doesn't care. ✓ (less para incontables)

• You've worked less than we have. ✓ (less para cantidades incontables/abstractas)

• He is less hard-working than his sister. ✓

3.4 Far → farther / further → the farthest / the furthest

• Miranda's house is farther than Robert's. ✓

• Mark walked farther in one hour than Joseph did in 6 hours. ✓

• Yes, this destination is farther than the previous one. ✓

• Their house is the farthest from the main road. ✓ (superlativo con the)

Forma incorrecta: farer, more far → incorrectas.

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4. Comparativo de igualdad: as ... as

Estructura: as + adjetivo/adverbio (forma base) + as

• The pupil became as smart as his teacher. ✓

• I am not as successful as my brother. ✓ (forma negativa: not as ... as)

• She is not as rich as everyone believes her to be. ✓

• This truck is not as fast as the one you bought. ✓ (también válido: not so fast as)

• He was as funny as a clown. ✓

• Ted threw the ball as hard as he could. ✓

• He swam as fast as he could. ✓

• The boss is the same age as you. ✓ (the same ... as, no than)

Forma negativa: not as ... as o not so ... as (ambas correctas, aunque not as ... as es más frecuente).

Errores habituales: as ... than, so ... so, as richer as, as smartest as → incorrectos. El adjetivo siempre en grado positivo (forma base).

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5. Doble comparativo: cambio progresivo

Para expresar que algo cambia de manera continua se usa la estructura comparativo + and + comparativo:

• She is getting more and more beautiful every day. (adjetivo largo)

• We're all getting older and older. (adjetivo corto con -er)

• The capital of the province is getting bigger and bigger.

• To win a race is getting more and more difficult nowadays.

• Jack's parents were getting more and more worried.

• Our clothes are getting older and older.

• These pigs are getting fatter and fatter.

• The children are getting healthier and healthier.

• Since Sally became a vegan, she's getting slimmer and slimmer.

• My English is getting better and better. (irregular: better and better, no more and more good)

Regla clave: si el comparativo usa -er, el doble comparativo es -er and -er. Si usa more, es more and more. Nunca se mezclan: more and more bigger, more older → incorrectos.

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6. Estructura correlativa: the + comparativo, the + comparativo

Expresa relación proporcional entre dos cambios. Equivale en español a «cuanto más/menos..., más/menos...».

Estructura: The + [comparativo], the + [comparativo]

• The hotter the food is, the more he likes it. ✓

• The faster you drive in the city, the more probable it is that you will have an accident. ✓

Ambas partes llevan the y el adjetivo en comparativo (nunca en positivo ni en superlativo).

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7. Preposiciones con superlativos

• Con referencia a un lugar: in → the fastest man in the world, the highest building in the town, the safest city in Spain, one of the most beautiful buildings in the UK.

• Con referencia a un grupo de cosas/personas: of → the hottest desert of all, of all the students.

Error frecuente: the luckiest person of the world → incorrecto; los lugares llevan in.

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8. One of the + superlativo + sustantivo plural

• London has one of the most beautiful buildings in the UK. ✓

• Marseilles is one of France's most conflictive towns. ✓

El sustantivo tras el superlativo va siempre en plural.

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9. Intensificadores del comparativo

Se pueden añadir palabras para reforzar o matizar el comparativo:

Error: more better es siempre incorrecto. Much better ✓, even worse ✓.

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10. Comparativo vs. superlativo: elección entre dos

Cuando se comparan dos elementos, se usa el comparativo; cuando son tres o más, el superlativo.

• Which of the two books is the more interesting one? (entre dos → more sin the o con the more; en el examen la respuesta es most cuando no se especifica «entre dos», es decir, se trata de elegir el mejor de la clase).

• Juan is taller than Jesús, but Pedro is the tallest. (comparativo para dos; superlativo para el absoluto del grupo).

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11. Resumen de errores más comunes en el examen

El genitivo sajón en inglés

El genitivo sajón (Saxon genitive o possessive 's) es la forma principal de expresar posesión, pertenencia o relación en inglés cuando el poseedor es una persona, un animal, un lugar geográfico, una organización o una referencia temporal. Equivale, en español, a la preposición «de» + posesor (invertido en inglés).

Estructura básica:

Poseedor + 's + cosa poseída

my sister's dog = el perro de mi hermana

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1. Formación: reglas fundamentales

1.1 Singular: poseedor + 's

La regla general para cualquier sustantivo singular (sea cual sea la letra final, incluida la s) es añadir 's.

1.2 Nombres propios acabados en -s: dos opciones válidas

Cuando el nombre propio ya termina en s (como James, Charles, James Richards), el inglés formal permite dos formas:

1. James's (pronunciado /ˈdʒeɪmzɪz/) — preferida en inglés británico estándar y en el examen de la PN.

2. James' (sin s adicional) — también aceptada, sobre todo en escritura formal.

Ejemplos del examen:

• James's nephew has a big dog. ✓ (James's + 's)

• James Richards' novels have been translated to many languages. ✓ (nombre de dos palabras acabado en s → solo apóstrofo)

Forma inventada que NUNCA existe: James'es → incorrecto.

1.3 Plural regular (acabado en -s): poseedor + ' (solo apóstrofo)

Cuando el plural ya lleva -s, se añade únicamente el apóstrofo después de la s, sin añadir otra s:

Error frecuente: the Simpsons's, the Browns's, managers's, parents's, girls's → incorrectos.

1.4 Plural irregular (NO acaba en -s): poseedor + 's

Los plurales irregulares que no terminan en s siguen la misma regla que los singulares: 's:

Error crítico del examen: childrens' y childrens son incorrectos porque children ya es el plural irregular de child (no existe childrens).

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2. Posesión compartida vs. posesión separada

Esta distinción aparece con frecuencia en el examen:

2.1 Posesión compartida (un solo objeto, compartido)

Se pone el 's solo en el último nombre:

• Jack and Jill's wedding. (la boda de los dos juntos) ✓

• Bob and Tom's father. (el mismo padre para los dos) ✓

• Susan and Steve's school. (van al mismo colegio) ✓

• Jack and Lisa's (son los padres de alguien, en común) ✓

2.2 Posesión separada (cada uno tiene la suya)

Se pone 's en cada nombre:

• Paul's and Rose's cars are high-end. (cada uno tiene su coche) ✓

En la práctica, el examen de la PN favorece mayoritariamente la posesión compartida con un solo 's al final.

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3. Posesión con grupos o familias: the + Apellido + s'

Para referirse a una familia completa se pluraliza el apellido y se añade el apóstrofo:

• Let's go to the Smiths'. They are throwing a party. ✓ (casa de los Smith)

• Those four boys are Thompson's boys. ✓ (el apellido sin artículo también es posible cuando no hay ambigüedad)

• The Simpsons' car is very old. ✓

• The Browns' boys are over there. ✓

Error: the Smith's implicaría que solo hay un Smith; the Smiths's → incorrecto.

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4. El genitivo sajón como pronombre (sin sustantivo posterior)

El genitivo puede usarse sin repetir el sustantivo poseído cuando el contexto lo hace claro:

• Whose car is that? It's John's. (se sobreentiende John's car)

• Those are not my parents, they are Jack and Lisa's. ✓

• Those industrial buildings are Pedro's. ✓

• All these keys are my sister's. ✓

• Those lands are John's. ✓

• That house was Matt's, but the court took it from him. ✓

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5. Expresiones temporales con genitivo sajón

El genitivo sajón se usa habitualmente con expresiones de tiempo para indicar duración o período:

Regla ortográfica:

• Período singular: a month's, an hour's, a week's ('s).

• Período plural: two hours', three days', six months' (solo apóstrofo).

Atención al adjetivo compuesto:

• a two-hour drive (el sustantivo actúa como adjetivo → sin genitivo, en singular, con guion) ✓

• a two-hours' drive → incorrecto en este contexto.

Ejemplo del examen: It's about a two-hour drive from home to the seaside. ✓ (aquí hour es modificador nominal, no lleva 's).

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6. Genitivo sajón con nombres de lugar y organizaciones

6.1 Lugares geográficos y países: genitivo sajón

Con nombres de países, ciudades, regiones y continentes se usa habitualmente el genitivo sajón:

• France's most conflictive towns ✓

• Spain's happiest hour ✓

• France's happiest day ✓

• San Roque's dog ✓

• New York's subway → aunque el examen en un caso concreto prefiere the New York subway (ver §7)

6.2 Organizaciones y títulos

• King of Romania's ministers ✓ (el 's se añade al último elemento del sintagma nominal, no a King solo)

• Captain Solo's ship ✓

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7. Cuándo NO usar el genitivo sajón: la construcción of

El genitivo sajón es propio de poseedores animados (personas, animales) o de las expresiones reconocidas arriba (tiempo, lugar, organización). Para objetos inanimados se usa preferentemente la construcción of:

Ejemplos del examen donde el examinador prueba esta distinción:

• The Port of San Francisco is one of the largest in the world. ✓ (lugar físico → of)

• The New York subway is the longest in the country. ✓ (sintagma nominal compuesto, sin genitivo)

• The statues of the cathedral were destroyed in the earthquake. ✓ (objeto inanimado → of)

• The laws of my country are not fair. ✓

• The success of the firm. ✓

• The roof of the house. ✓ / The side of the box. ✓ / The end of the film. ✓

• I like the atmosphere of this place. ✓

Sintagmas nominales compuestos (sin genitivo ni of):

Cuando el primer sustantivo actúa como modificador (adjetivo nominal) del segundo, no se usa genitivo:

• a garden table (mesa de jardín) ✓ / a garden's table ✗

• the commerce area (área comercial) ✓ / the commerce's area ✗

• the stable door (la puerta del establo) ✓ / the stable's door ✗

• the government minister (el ministro del gobierno) ✓

• a Starfleet ship (nave de la Flota Estelar) ✓

• a doorbell (timbre de la puerta, palabra compuesta) ✓

• the New York subway ✓

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8. Whose para preguntar por el poseedor

La palabra interrogativa para preguntar por el poseedor es whose (de quién):

• Whose phone is this one? I think it's dad's. ✓

• Whose bag is this? It is Sam's. ✓

• Whose are those jeans on the floor? They are not mine, they are George's. ✓

• Whose glasses are these? I think they are Ali's. ✓

Error de libro: Who's phone = «¿Quién es el teléfono?» (contracción de who is) → incorrecto en este contexto. When phone, How phone → incorrectos.

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9. Genitivo con artículo: errores frecuentes

Cuando se usa el genitivo sajón, el artículo the o el adjetivo posesivo precede a toda la frase, no se intercala con el apóstrofo:

• That's Virginia's dog. ✓ / The Virginia's dog ✗ (con nombre propio no se usa the)

• My brother's t-shirt. ✓ / The t-shirt of my brother's ✗

• It's Mary's car. ✓ / It's the Mary's car ✗ / It's the Mary's the car ✗

• It's my father's car. ✓ / It's my father's the car ✗

Con nombres propios (personas) no se usa the antes del genitivo. Con sustantivos comunes definidos (the manager, the shepherd) sí se usa the antes del poseedor.

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10. Genitivo sajón en construcciones con parents' (apóstrofo con vocal)

Una pregunta específica del examen prueba la forma con apóstrofo intercalado en vez de seguido:

• I drove my parents' car yesterday. → el apóstrofo correcto es ' (después de parents), porque es un plural regular. ✓

• I still live at my parents' house. ✓

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11. Resumen visual: ¿'s o ' o of?

│

├── SÍ → Genitivo sajón

│     ├── Singular → poseedor + 's

│     │     (incluye plurales irregulares: children's, men's)

│     └── Plural regular (acaba en -s) → poseedor + '

│           (boys', parents', managers', children's ← irregular)

│

└── NO (objeto inanimado) → of + sustantivo ó sustantivo compuesto (sin genitivo ni of)

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12. Tabla de errores típicos del examen

Cuantificadores en inglés

Los cuantificadores son palabras o expresiones que indican cantidad. La regla de oro para elegir el cuantificador correcto es determinar si el sustantivo que acompaña es contable (countable) o incontable (uncountable).

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1. Sustantivos contables e incontables

Atención: staff (personal), traffic (tráfico), furniture (muebles), news (noticias), advice (consejo) son incontables en inglés aunque en español se puedan contar.

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2. MUCH / MANY

MUCH — con sustantivos incontables

Se usa principalmente en frases negativas e interrogativas. En afirmativas suena formal; se prefiere a lot of.

MANY — con sustantivos contables

Se usa en negativas, interrogativas y afirmativas.

Truco: Si puedes añadir «-s» al sustantivo → many. Si no → much.

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3. A LOT OF / LOTS OF / A LOT

• A lot of / Lots of: válidos con sustantivos contables e incontables en cualquier tipo de oración.

• A lot (sin of): se usa sin sustantivo a continuación, o al final de la frase.

• Lots of: variante informal de a lot of.

Error frecuente: a lots of y a lot of of son incorrectos. Solo a lot of o lots of.

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4. A FEW / FEW — A LITTLE / LITTLE

Este es uno de los puntos más examinados. La distinción es doble: contable vs. incontable y positivo vs. negativo.

Clave: Con artículo (a few, a little) el hablante ve el vaso medio lleno. Sin artículo (few, little) el hablante lo ve medio vacío.

"I have few friends." → Tengo pocos amigos (no son suficientes, mal).

A FEW OF / A LITTLE OF

Cuando va seguido de un determinante (the, my, these...) se añade of:

• I've read a few of the books. (algunos de esos libros concretos)

• She drank a little of the wine. (un poco de ese vino concreto)

Sin determinante: directamente el sustantivo.

• The waiter brought a little soda and a few peanuts. ✓

• The waiter brought a little of soda ✗

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5. SOME / ANY

Excepción importante: some se usa en preguntas cuando se ofrece algo o se espera una respuesta afirmativa: Would you like some water? ✓

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6. NO / NONE

• No va delante del sustantivo: There is no water.

• None va solo (sin sustantivo): "Is there any water?" "None."/"None of them."

• None of them → el pronombre va después de of: none of them / none of us / none of the students.

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7. TOO / TOO MUCH / TOO MANY / ENOUGH

TOO — exceso delante de adjetivos y adverbios

Too + adjetivo/adverbio indica que hay más de lo deseable.

Atención: too much delante de adjetivo es un error muy común en el examen: She was too much tired ✗ → She was too tired ✓

TOO MUCH / TOO MANY — exceso de cantidad

ENOUGH — suficiencia

• Suficiencia: cantidad adecuada o habilidad suficiente.

• Posición clave: enough va antes del sustantivo pero después del adjetivo/adverbio.

Error frecuente en examen: enough old ✗ → old enough ✓

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8. SO MUCH / SO MANY — énfasis de cantidad

Se usan para expresar una cantidad grande con matiz enfático o emocional.

• You make as much noise as she does.

• My friends hadn't expected to have so many problems.

• I don't know where to place this lamp. I don't have so much space.

Diferencia too vs. so: too indica exceso problemático (it's too expensive to buy); so expresa énfasis o consecuencia emotiva (I'm so tired!).

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9. BOTH / EITHER / NEITHER

Estos tres cuantificadores se refieren siempre a exactamente dos elementos.

Posición de BOTH

• Delante del sustantivo: Both doors were closed.

• Delante del verbo principal (detrás de auxiliares): They both looked at each other. / Did you both enjoy the trip?

• Como pronombre: I like both of them.

EITHER ... OR / NEITHER ... NOR

Correlativas usadas en frases:

• Either ... or: «o ... o» (una de las dos opciones) → Either you pay or you leave.

• Neither ... nor: «ni ... ni» (ninguna de las dos) → I like neither westerns nor horror movies.

Truco: neither ... nor es la doble negación formal. En informal: I don't like westerns or horror movies.

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10. ALL / EVERY / EACH

All vs. Every: all students = todos los estudiantes como grupo; every student = cada estudiante individualmente (sin excepción).

ALL pospuesto tras pronombre objeto

All puede colocarse después de un pronombre objeto (o de it/them) para indicar la totalidad del objeto. Esta posición es diferente de «all + sustantivo» antepuesto:

• She finished it all. (Lo terminó todo.)

• They drank it all in one night. (Se lo bebieron todo en una noche.)

• He spent it all on clothes. (Se lo gastó todo en ropa.)

Contraste: She ate all the cake (all antepuesto al sustantivo) vs. She ate it all (all pospuesto al pronombre).

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11. MOST / MOST OF

• Most + sustantivo sin artículo: Most people know that. (la mayoría de la gente en general)

• Most of + determinante + sustantivo: Most of the students passed. (la mayoría de esos estudiantes concretos)

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12. ONE ANOTHER / EACH OTHER

• Each other: reciprocidad entre dos personas.

• One another: reciprocidad entre más de dos (aunque en la práctica se usan indistintamente).

At the end of the match, the two players said: «Let's follow each other on Instagram!»

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13. ANOTHER / OTHER / THE OTHER

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14. SOMETHING / ANYTHING / NOTHING — pronombres indefinidos de cosa

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15. WHOLE / ALL

• The whole + singular: Peter ate the whole apple. (el objeto en su totalidad)

• All + artículo + plural: All the apples were eaten.

• All + singular sin artículo (tiempo): He spent all week studying.

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Tabla resumen general

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Errores más frecuentes en el examen

1. too much + adjetivo → usar solo too: too tired ✓, too much tired ✗

2. a little of + sustantivo sin determinante → a little water ✓, a little of water ✗

3. a lots of → siempre a lot of ✓

4. enough old → siempre adjetivo + enough: old enough ✓

5. none of they → siempre pronombre objeto: none of them ✓

6. fews → few es invariable, sin «-s» ✓

7. somes → some es invariable ✓