Inglés (Guardia Civil)

Bloque 1

Inglés — Guardia Civil: Gramática Completa (Bloque 1)

Sección de temario que cubre exhaustivamente los puntos gramaticales probados en las preguntas del primer bloque del examen de inglés de la Guardia Civil. Explicaciones en español; ejemplos y estructuras en inglés.

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1. Tiempos Verbales

1.1 Presente Simple

Se usa para hábitos, rutinas, verdades generales y estados permanentes. Con la tercera persona del singular (he/she/it) se añade -s o -es al verbo.

Negación e interrogación se forman con do/does:

• He usually works on Saturdays. (hábito)
• Many shops are opened at around nine. (pasiva presente simple — ver § 8)
• Your dinner tastes really good. (verbo estativo: no admite forma continua)

Posición de los adverbios de frecuencia (always, usually, often, never, sometimes): van entre el sujeto y el verbo principal, pero después del verbo to be:

• She is always on time. (be + adverbio)
• He usually works on Saturdays. (adverbio + verbo principal)
• They are usually late. (be + adverbio — NO "they usually are late")

1.2 Presente Continuo

Formado con am/is/are + verbo-ing. Expresa acciones en progreso en el momento de hablar o planes futuros ya organizados.

• She is eating an apple now.
• Jon and Marie are getting married next June, they have everything organized.

Los verbos estativos (taste, look, seem, like, love, know, etc.) no se usan normalmente en continuo: "Your dinner tastes good" (NO "is tasting").

1.3 Pasado Simple

Expresa acciones completadas en un momento definido del pasado. Los verbos regulares añaden -ed; los irregulares tienen forma propia.

Verbos irregulares frecuentes en el examen:

• Yesterday morning, he was told by the professor not to talk. (pasiva pasado — § 8)
• He called the office yesterday to tell them he was sick.
• Yesterday Mary did her homework and went to school.
• She studied hard and passed the exam. (dos acciones completadas en secuencia — pasado simple, NO pasado perfecto compuesto)

Uso de did en respuestas enfáticas:

• "You didn't really see it, did you?" — "Of course I did!" (verbo auxiliar en la respuesta corta, no se repite el verbo principal)

1.4 Pasado Continuo

Formado con was/were + verbo-ing. Expresa una acción en progreso en un momento del pasado, frecuentemente interrumpida por otra acción (pasado simple).

• Paul was tired, but he went on reading his book. (continuó leyendo)

1.5 Presente Perfecto Simple

Formado con have/has + participio pasado. Conecta el pasado con el presente: experiencias de vida, acciones con resultado presente, acciones que empezaron en el pasado y continúan.

Irregulares clave:

• leave → left (NO "leaved": "has just left")
• begin → begun: I have begun my degree.
• read → read (pronunciación cambia, ortografía igual)
• buy → bought: I have bought a new pair of shoes.

For vs. Since:

• For + duración: "for five years", "for six months"
• Since + punto de inicio: "since 2018", "since we were in school"
• "How long have they lived in Houston?" — "Since 2018." (NO "Since 6 years ago" — con "since" va punto temporal, no duración; con "for" va duración)

Already / Yet / Just:

• Already (ya) en afirmativas: "The class has already started." — posición entre have/has y el participio.
• Yet (todavía, en negativas e interrogativas) al final: "I haven't paid the fees yet."
• Just (acabar de) entre auxiliar y participio: "He has just left."

Sujeto y concordancia: he/she/it → has; I/you/we/they → have.

• "He has missed the train." (NO "have missed")
• "They have already done their homework."

1.6 Presente Perfecto Continuo

Formado con have/has + been + verbo-ing. Enfatiza la duración de una actividad que empezó en el pasado y continúa o acaba de terminar.

• I had been studying so hard and for so long that when I saw the exam I was in tears.

1.7 Pasado Perfecto Simple

Formado con had + participio pasado. Expresa una acción anterior a otro pasado (la "primera" acción en una secuencia pasada).

• He admitted that he had taken all the money from the box. (acción anterior al momento de la admisión)
• Linda said she had bought a computer the year before. (reported speech — ver § 6)
• John said he had broken his knee the week before.

En el examen se distingue claramente "had + participio" (correcto) de "had + pasado simple" (incorrecto): "had taken", NO "had took".

1.8 Pasado Perfecto Continuo

Formado con had been + verbo-ing. Expresa una actividad en progreso hasta un momento del pasado.

• I had been studying for so long that I was exhausted when I saw the exam.

1.9 Futuro: Will, Going to, Present Continuous

Doble negación con will:

• "It won't ever be the same." (NOT "won't never be" — doble negación incorrecta en inglés estándar)

Modal might para probabilidad futura:

• Your brother might come tomorrow, but it's quite difficult. (posibilidad, no certeza)

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2. Verbos Modales

Los modales son auxiliares invariables (no añaden -s ni forman tiempos compuestos con have salvo en forma perfecta). Van seguidos de infinitivo sin to, salvo "ought to" y "have to".

2.1 Tabla de Modales Principales

Reglas formales:

• Siempre van seguidos de infinitivo sin to (excepto "ought to", "have to", "be able to").
• NO llevan -s en tercera persona: "he might come" (NO "mights").
• NO se combina con otro modal directamente.

May para permiso y posibilidad:

• "May I ask you a favour?" — "Yes, you may." (petición formal de permiso)
• "Might this be the answer to our questions?" (posibilidad especulativa)
• "May I speak to you, Mr. Smith?" (fórmula de cortesía formal)

Should have + participio (crítica / reproche al pasado):

• You shouldn't have told the truth to Anthony. (no debiste haberlo dicho — crítica al pasado)
• Estructura: should/shouldn't + have + participio pasado

Could para capacidad pasada:

• "Could you drive when you became a Civil Guard?" — "No, I couldn't." (capacidad en el pasado)

2.2 Modales en Reported Speech

Los modales cambian en estilo indirecto (ver § 6.3):

• can → could
• may → might
• will → would
• must → had to (o permanece "must" en algunos contextos)
• might → might (no cambia)

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3. Reported Speech (Estilo Indirecto)

El estilo indirecto transforma las palabras exactas de alguien en una cita integrada en el discurso. Los cambios principales son: retroceso de tiempos verbales, cambio de pronombres y cambio de expresiones de tiempo.

3.1 Retroceso de Tiempos (Backshift)

Ejemplos del examen:

• Direct: "I'm going to take a bath." → Reported: Mary told me she was going to take a bath.
• Direct: "I am fed up with my boyfriend." → Reported: Mary said she was fed up with her boyfriend. (pronombre cambia de "my" a "her")
• Direct: "I bought a computer one year ago." → Reported: Linda said she had bought a computer the year before.
• Direct: "I broke my knee last week." → Reported: John said he had broken his knee the week before.

3.2 Cambio de Pronombres

Los pronombres se adaptan al nuevo sujeto lógico:

• "I" → he/she (según el hablante original)
• "my" → his/her
• "you" (interlocutor original) → me/him/her/them según el contexto

Mary said: "I am fed up with my boyfriend." → Mary said she was fed up with her boyfriend. (NO "my" — trampa frecuente del examen)

3.3 Cambio de Expresiones Temporales

3.4 Reported Questions (Preguntas Indirectas)

Las preguntas indirectas no llevan inversión sujeto-verbo y siguen el orden afirmativo normal: pregunta introductoria + conector + sujeto + verbo.

Con pregunta de sí/no (Yes/No questions): se introduce con if o whether.

• Direct: "Will you come to the gym this evening?" → Reported: Laura asked me if I would come to the gym that evening.
• Direct: "Have you signed the contract?" → Suzan asked if we had signed the contract.
• Direct: "Have you brought your wallet?" → Barry asked me if I had brought my wallet.

Con pregunta informativa (Wh- questions): se mantiene la palabra interrogativa, pero sin inversión.

• Direct: "When was the film released?" → Nobody remembers when the film was released. (NO "when was the film released" — se pierde la inversión)
• Direct: "How often had they done this?" → Would you let me know how often they had done this?
• Direct: "What did it look like?" → Do you know what it looked like?
• Direct: "When is he coming?" → Nobody knows when he is coming.

Con preguntas de sí/no en indirecta: mantener el orden SVO:

• "Did Lucy work at home yesterday?" → Do you know if Lucy worked at home yesterday? (NO "if worked Lucy")
• "How do I get to the post office?" → Could you tell me how I get to the post office? (SVO normal)

3.5 Reported Commands (Órdenes en Estilo Indirecto)

Las órdenes se convierten con told + objeto + to + infinitivo.

• Direct: "Please, keep the noise down." → The teacher told us to keep the noise down. (NO "told us keep" — falta el "to")
• Direct: "You must drive slowly here." → The police officer told me to drive slowly there. (NO "to drove" — infinitivo, no pasado)

3.6 Modal "might" en Reported Speech

• Direct: "The weather may get much worse." → The guide said that the weather might get much worse. (may → might; NO "will" ni "can")

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4. Voz Pasiva

La voz pasiva se forma con be (en el tiempo correspondiente) + participio pasado.

4.1 Estructura por Tiempos

Agente (by + noun): se incluye solo cuando es relevante.

• All the criminals were arrested by the police. (agente relevante)
• The offer has been rejected. (agente omitido por irrelevante o desconocido)

Errores comunes a evitar:

• "was arrest" → was arrested (participio, no infinitivo)
• "have stole" → has been stolen (concordancia: "a million dollars" = singular en inglés)
• "were rejected" con sujeto singular → "was rejected" (The offer = singular → has been rejected)

Pasiva pasado (fue informado/ordenado):

• He was told by the professor not to talk. (pasado simple pasivo — correcto)
• Over a million dollars has been stolen from a bank. (presente perfecto pasivo — sujeto "money" = singular)

4.2 Pasiva con "going to"

• "I'm going to take a call." → A call is going to be taken by me. (NOT "is going to be took" — participio, no pasado)

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5. Preguntas Coletilla (Tag Questions)

Una tag question se añade al final de una oración para pedir confirmación. La regla básica:

• Si la oración es afirmativa → la coletilla es negativa.
• Si la oración es negativa → la coletilla es positiva.
• El auxiliar de la coletilla concuerda con el tiempo y auxiliar de la oración principal.

Errores frecuentes del examen:

• "organised" (past simple) → coletilla: "didn't they?" (NO "are they?", NO "did they?")
• Nancy likes → "doesn't she?" (NO "don't she", NO "isn't she")

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6. So / Neither / Nor (Acuerdo y Desacuerdo)

Estas estructuras expresan que alguien comparte la misma situación que otro.

6.1 So + auxiliar + sujeto (acuerdo afirmativo)

Se usa para acordar con una afirmación:

• "I went to the mountain on Sunday." — "So did I." (pasado simple → did)
• "I'd like to go for a walk." — "So would I." (condicional → would)
• "She loves to climb mountains, and so does her husband." (presente simple, 3ª pers. sg. → does)

6.2 Neither / Nor + auxiliar + sujeto (acuerdo negativo)

Se usa para acordar con una negación:

• "Mary never has her homework!" — "Neither does Ann." (presente simple negativo → does)
• "I can't forgive them." — "Neither can I." (modal can → can)
• "I don't drink alcohol." — "Neither do I." (presente simple → do)
• "Ana never meets deadlines!" — "Neither does Sally." (presente simple negativo)
• "Polly never does her homework!" — "Nor does Laura!" (Nor + inversión, mismo patrón)

Recordar siempre la inversión auxiliar-sujeto. "Neither do I" (correcto), "Neither I do" (incorrecto).

6.3 Negative Agreement con "either"

En oraciones negativas ya completas, "either" va al final (sin inversión):

• "I've never liked that school, and I don't think you either." (adición a negación previa)

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7. Preguntas Directas e Indirectas (Wh- Questions)

7.1 Palabras Interrogativas y su Uso

"What ... like?" pregunta por la descripción de una persona o cosa (carácter, aspecto). La respuesta correcta describe, no usa "like" de nuevo:

• "What was your dog?" → No tiene sentido. Correcto: "How was your dog?" o "What was your dog like?" — respuesta: "Hairy and stubborn."
• "What was your old boss like?" → "He was very nice." (NO "he was called like Fred")

7.2 Preguntas Indirectas (Indirect Questions)

En preguntas indirectas el orden es sujeto + verbo (sin inversión ni do/does/did auxiliar):

• Direct: "How do I get to the post office?" → Could you tell me how I get to the post office? (NO "how do I get")
• Direct: "When is he coming?" → Nobody knows when he is coming. (NO "when is he coming")
• Direct: "What did it look like?" → Do you know what it looked like? (NO "what did it look")
• Direct: "Why did he do it?" → Do you know why he did it? (incluir pronombre objeto "it" — NO "why he did")

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8. Artículos (A / An / The / Sin artículo)

8.1 Artículo Indefinido A / An

• A delante de consonante (sonido): a machine, a teacher, a big dog.
• An delante de vocal (sonido): an apple, an effort, an experience.
• Se usa con profesiones en singular: "Pablo wants to become a teacher." (NO "teacher" sin artículo)
• Sus padres son médicos (plural): "despite his parents being doctors." (plural → sin artículo)

8.2 Artículo Definido The

Se usa cuando el referente es conocido o único:

• The meat is on the table.
• "It's the slowest horse I've ever seen." (superlativo → siempre "the")

Sin artículo (zero article):

• Sustantivos incontables en sentido general: "Drinking tea is good for your body." (NO "the tea" en sentido general)
• Comidas, materias, conceptos abstractos en general: "learning Portuguese is easy."

8.3 Posesivos sin Artículo

Los posesivos (my, your, his, her, etc.) no llevan artículo delante:

• Is that Mary's husband? Yes, he is her husband. (NO "the Mary's" — el genitivo sajón no lleva artículo)

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9. Pronombres

9.1 Pronombres Personales

Usos frecuentes en el examen:

• "Wait for me! I haven't taken my coat yet." (objeto: "me"; posesivo adjetivo: "my")
• "My sister introduced me to a friend of hers." (posesivo pronombre — "a friend of + posesivo pronombre", no "her's")
• "The pleasure is mine." (pronombre posesivo independiente)
• "Your uncle likes to take care of himself." (reflexivo — NOT "hisself", forma incorrecta)
• "I work with them in their disco." (objeto: "them"; posesivo: "their")
• "I know it was her because I saw her do it." (sujeto: "I", no "me")

9.2 Pronombres Reflexivos

Se usan cuando el sujeto y el objeto son la misma persona, o para énfasis:

• himself (él mismo), herself (ella misma), themselves (ellos mismos), yourself (tú mismo), myself (yo mismo).
• "He plans his meals carefully." (adverbio, no reflexivo)

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10. Demostrativos y Concordancia

Los demostrativos concuerdan en número con el sustantivo al que acompañan:

• "I won't be able to finish this project." (singular — the project = one)
• "Those posters you gave me look great over there." (plural + lejanía: los carteles están allá)
• "I hope this month ends soon." (singular)
• "That girl is our last hope." (singular + lejanía)
• "These people need a quick solution." (plural — people es plural en inglés, siempre)
• "No matter how hard you try, that peak is unreachable." (singular + lejanía)
• "This is not the right way to do it." (referencia a situación/idea → singular)
• "His house is that one over there." (lejanía: over there)
• "Is that the suspect?" (singular, señalando)

"People" en inglés es siempre plural: "these people need" (NOT "this people needs").

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11. Posesivo Sajón y Plurales Posesivos

El posesivo sajón se forma añadiendo 's al poseedor singular; para plurales que ya terminan en -s, solo se añade el apóstrofe (').

• "This car is my brothers'." (plural de brother → brothers → brothers' — NO "brothers's")

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12. Pronombres Relativos

Los pronombres relativos unen cláusulas y se refieren a un antecedente (persona o cosa).

Whose es el único relativo de posesión:

• "The boy whose dog was hit by a car has not been to school." (NOT "which dog" ni "who dog")
• "Susan, whose brother works at the office, is my best friend." (NOT "who brother", NOT "that brother")

Who vs. Whom:

• Who = sujeto de la relativa: "The criminals who ran away…"
• Whom = objeto de la relativa o tras preposición: "the man of whom I am in love"; "the employee whom we hired"

Which para cosas y ideas:

• "This is the house which my wife wants to buy." (NOT "who", NOT "whose")

Locativos:

• "This is the house where I was born." (lugar → where, NOT "what", NOT "in that")

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13. Cuantificadores y Determinantes

13.1 Countable vs. Uncountable

Errores frecuentes del examen:

• "How much money do you need?" (money = incontable → much, NOT "many money")
• "Just a little." (referido a money → incontable, NOT "a few money")
• "How many warriors did you see?" (warriors = contable → many)
• "Too many." (warriors = contable → many, NOT "too much")
• "I don't eat much meat." (meat = incontable → much, NOT "many")
• "A few things you can do…" (things = contable plural → a few, NOT "a little")
• "There are a few things." (hay algunas → contable, "There are" — NOT "there is a few")

13.2 A Few vs. Few / A Little vs. Little

• "Fortunately, there were a few fans." (positivo: había algunos — suficientes para no estar solo)
• "I like very few songs." (negativo: casi ninguna)

13.3 Some / Any

• Some: oraciones afirmativas y ofrecimientos/peticiones corteses: "I have some pens in my bag."

• Any: oraciones negativas e interrogativas: "Have we got any milk?" / "I'll answer any questions you have."

• En contextos positivos con significado de "cualquiera": "Anyone can pass that exam."

• "Have you received any letters?" (interrogativa → any)

• "We've got some orange juice." (afirmativa → some)

• "I haven't paid the fees yet." (negativa → yet)

13.4 Both / Either / Neither

Construcciones correlativas:

• either … or (o … o): "You must respond either 'true' or 'false'."
• neither … nor (ni … ni): "You can use neither this computer nor the other one."
• both … and (tanto … como): no aparece en este bloque pero es su paralela.

Neither of them (ninguno de dos):

• "Did Phil and Nick come?" — "No, neither of them came." (dos personas → neither; NOT "none of them" que es para más de dos)

Both sin artículo:

• "Can I have both, please?" (NOT "the both", NOT "boths")
• "Both Ann and Tom were late." (NOT "Both of Ann and Tom" — cuando va directo con nombres propios, sin "of")

13.5 Every / Each / All

• "The train had every (of the luxuries) you can imagine." (every = "cada uno de todos")

13.6 Other / Another / The Other

• "There's another one yet." (hay uno más, indefinido — NOT "the other" que implicaría que solo quedaba ese)
• "I told you to bring me another one. I've only eaten two slices." (uno más indeterminado — NOT "the other")

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14. Adverbios y Posición

14.1 Adverbios de Modo

Se forman añadiendo -ly al adjetivo. Siguen al verbo principal o van al final de la oración.

• comfortable → comfortably (NOT "comfortabily", NOT "comfortability")
• careful → carefully: "He plans his meals carefully."
• quiet → quietly: "That girl speaks quietly."

14.2 Enough / Too

Enough con adjetivos y adverbios va después del adjetivo o adverbio:

• "The red car couldn't cross because it wasn't fast enough." (NOT "enough fast")
• "Pam couldn't reach the top shelf because she wasn't tall enough." (NOT "enough tall")
• "She wasn't fast enough."
• "Tom said this bread is not good enough." (NOT "not enough good")

Too va antes del adjetivo:

• "Don't play near the railway line. It's too dangerous."
• "He has become too fat to wear his old jeans."
• "It's too much" — but "too dangerous" (adjetivo: too + adjective; "too much" solo con sustantivos incontables o en sentido enfático).

Too much / Too many:

• "too much" + incontable: "too much noise"
• "too many" + contable plural: "too many warriors"

14.3 So / Such

Ambos expresan intensidad, pero su estructura difiere:

• "You are so kind." (adjetivo sin sustantivo → so)
• "Julie is so optimistic." (adjetivo solo → so, NOT "such a")
• "It has such a great sense of direction." (adjetivo + sustantivo singular contable → such a)
• "The shops had so few vegetables." (so + adjetivo/cuantificador sin sustantivo siguiente en la misma estructura de intensidad)
• "That girl speaks so quietly." (adverbio → so)
• "___ loud noise!" → "What a loud noise!" (exclamaciones: What a + sustantivo singular contable)

14.4 What / How en Exclamaciones

• "___ loud noise!" → "What a loud noise!" (contable singular)
• "___ obsolete your equipment is!" → "How obsolete…" (adjetivo sin sustantivo directo)
• "___ stupid things they have said!" → "What stupid things…" (plural → what sin artículo)
• "___ shame you can't come!" → "What a shame!" (contable singular)

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15. Preposiciones de Lugar y Tiempo

15.1 Preposiciones de Lugar

En pisos de edificio: siempre on + ordinal: "on the 7th floor" (NOT "in the 7th floor").

Situación física detallada:

• "Is the wallet in the drawer?" — "It might be under the bed." (in = dentro; under = debajo)
• "The law firm is on the 7th floor, next to the jewellery." (NOT "next of")
• "It's opposite the sports centre, between the church and the Chinese restaurant." (NOT "opposite of", NOT "between…and…of")
• "The office is on Oxford Street, on the second floor, opposite the post office." (NOT "opposite of")

Sobre la mesa: "The meat is on the table." (NOT "in the table")

Lugar genérico (calle, carretera):

• "Where did you park the car?" — "It's on the street." (en inglés americano: "on the street"; en inglés británico también correcto)

At + evento social:

• "I met her at the party last night." (eventos: at)

15.2 Preposiciones de Tiempo

• "In summer, we go fishing at the weekends." (NOT "On summer"; "at the weekends" = BrE habitual)
• "We often go to the beach in summer." (estación → in)
• "We shouldn't meet in the morning." (parte del día sin especificar día → in)
• "You need to raise your hand at the same time." (expresión fija: at the same time)
• "We always listen to music on the way to work." (on the way = de camino)

15.3 Preposiciones Causales

Conectan una acción con su causa (sustantivo o gerundio):

• "My uncle didn't get the job because of his age." (NOT "in spite" sin "of")
• "We arrived so late because of the traffic." (NOT "due a", NOT "owing" sin complemento)
• "Joseph's daughter couldn't go hiking owing to her injured leg." (NOT "on account for his" — cambio de pronombre: "her" leg, hija de Joseph)
• "Catherine moved to Sweden because of working conditions there." (NOT "due of")

15.4 Preposiciones Finales e Instrumentales

• in order to + infinitivo: "We will continue working hard in order to reach a solution." (NOT "in order of", NOT "so order to")
• to + infinitivo (propósito simple): igual función.

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16. Conectores Adversativos y Concesivos

Distinción clave:

• Although/though → seguidos de cláusula con sujeto y verbo: "Although it is expensive…"

• Despite/in spite of → seguidos de sustantivo o gerundio: "Despite the cost…" / "In spite of being expensive…" (NOT "despite + clause" directamente sin "the fact that")

• However → adverbio que introduce una oración nueva o va entre comas: "We didn't like the hotel. However, we had a great time."

• "You can study all you want. However, you will never get better marks than him." (NOT "Although" sin cláusula, NOT "Despite" sin nominales)

• "This database is obsolete, although it still fulfills its function." (cláusula completa → although)

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17. Gerunidio vs. Infinitivo

17.1 Verbos que Rigen Gerundio

Algunos verbos van seguidos de verbo-ing (gerundio):

• go on (continuar): "He went on reading his book."
• get used to (acostumbrarse a): "You have to get used to eating the local food." (NOT "to eat" — tras "used to" como preposición)
• be accused of: "They were accused of stealing the jewels." (NOT "steal", NOT "to steal")
• avoid, enjoy, finish, mind, suggest: + gerundio.

17.2 Verbos que Rigen Infinitivo

• want, would like, would love, hope, plan, decide: + to + infinitivo.
• "I would love to grow my own business." / "He would love to go to China."
• "They say that learning Portuguese is easy" — pero como sujeto de oración: gerundio o to + infinitivo son equivalentes; en este examen: "They say that learning Portuguese is very easy." (gerundio como sujeto nominal)

17.3 Gerundio como Sujeto

• "Learning Portuguese is easy." (NOT "to learning", NOT "learn", NOT "the learn")

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18. Make vs. Do

Una de las áreas con más preguntas en el examen. Regla general:

• Do: actividades y tareas generales, trabajo o estudio no especificado, acciones cuyo resultado no es un objeto tangible.
• Make: creación, producción, preparación de algo; expresiones fijas de comunicación o decisión.

18.1 Expresiones con Make

18.2 Expresiones con Do

Ejemplos del examen:

• "It's a lie, he is making up a story." (make up = inventarse)
• "Christine made an effort so she did well in the test." (make an effort; do well)
• "Somebody needs to do the dishes." (do the dishes)
• "We still need to make many arrangements." (make arrangements)
• "Anyone wants to make a suggestion?" (make a suggestion)
• "I can't do the ironing." (do the ironing)
• "I have to make a confession." (make a confession)
• "Do me a favour and shut up!" (do a favour)
• "He made me a promise." (make a promise)
• "Our maths teacher always makes us feel uncomfortable." (make + object + infinitive)
• "She made such a great impression." (make an impression)
• "The finish line is very close, make a last effort." (make an effort)
• "He made / did → "She made / did → "she made an effort so she did well"

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19. Phrasal Verbs

Los phrasal verbs son verbos formados por un verbo base + partícula (preposición o adverbio) cuyo significado es distinto del literal.

19.1 Phrasal Verbs del Examen

Get on = llevarse bien:

• "Carlos and Sara don't get on. They are too different from each other." (NOT "get off", NOT "get up")

Make up = inventarse una historia:

• "He is making up a story as usual." / "He makes up a funny story as an excuse."

Break down = averiarse:

• "Our car broke down on the motorway." (pasado simple de break down: broke down, NOT "brokes down")

Set up = montar/crear:

• "I would love to set up my own business." (NOT "grow down", NOT "fill over", NOT "settle off")

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20. Comparativos y Superlativos

20.1 Comparativos

Adjetivos cortos (1-2 sílabas): añaden -er + than:

• big → bigger than (dobla consonante final): "My house is bigger than yours." (NOT "more bigger than")
• old → older than
• fast → faster than

Adjetivos largos (3+ sílabas): usan more + adjetivo + than:

• dangerous → more dangerous than

Comparativo doble (cambio progresivo): the + comparativo … the + comparativo:

• "The bigger the dog, the safer he feels." (NOT "biger" — dobla consonante)
• "We are getting younger and younger." (NOT "more young", NOT "more and more young" — young es corto)

20.2 Superlativos

Adjetivos cortos: the + adjetivo + -est:

• hard → the hardest
• slow → the slowest

Adjetivos largos: the most + adjetivo.

Irregulares:

• "You sound happy." (adjetivo con "sound" = verbo copulativo; adjetivo, no adverbio)
• "It was the worst experience in my life, even worse than swimming with sharks." (superlativo → "the worst"; comparativo → "worse than"; NOT "the worser", NOT "the baddest")

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21. Condicionales y Subjuntivo/As Though

21.1 Condicional con "as though / as if"

Expresa algo imaginario o hipotético. Cuando se refiere al presente o al futuro, el verbo en la cláusula con "as though" va en pasado simple (subjuntivo):

• "The new employee behaved as though he owned the company." (hipótesis en el pasado → owned, NOT "owns", NOT "will own")

21.2 Condicional Tipo 2 (hipotético presente)

If + pasado simple → would + infinitivo:

• "Who would you meet if you had the chance to know a new person?" → "Who would you meet?" (NOT "would you met" — infinitivo, no participio)

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22. "Used to" (Hábito Pasado)

Used to + infinitivo expresa hábitos o estados pasados que ya no ocurren.

Forma afirmativa: subject + used to + infinitivo:

• "When I was a kid, I used to play the recorder every day."

Forma negativa: subject + didn't use to + infinitivo:

• "…but I didn't use to play the piano." (NOT "didn't used to play" — con did, el verbo es "use" en infinitivo)

Tabla resumen:

Errores comunes: "used to played" (incorrecto — no se añade -ed al infinitivo), "didn't used to" (incorrecto — con auxiliar did, el verbo es "use").

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23. Presente Perfecto: For / Since / Already / Yet / Just

(Ver § 1.5 para la tabla completa; aquí se añaden matices del examen.)

• "She's worked in this bank since it first opened." (since + punto de inicio, con presente perfecto)
• "We've known each other since we were in school." (since + cláusula pasada)
• "Robert has lived next door for five years." (for + duración)
• "I have begun my degree and I haven't paid the fees yet." (begun = participio de begin; yet al final en negativas)
• "The class has already started." (already entre auxiliar y participio)
• "I've been there all day." (all day = todo el día; NOT "all the morning" — en inglés "all morning" o "all day", NO "all the morning")

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24. Vocabulario Específico

24.1 Gentilicios y Lenguas

• Portuguese (portugués/a): "I'm from neither of them. I'm Portuguese." (Portugal → Portuguese)
• El adjetivo de nacionalidad también nombra el idioma.

24.2 Léxico del Examen

24.3 Adverbios de Modo Ortografía

• comfortable → comfortably (NOT comfortabily, NOT comfortability)
• careful → carefully
• quiet → quietly

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25. Concordancia Especial

25.1 There is / There are

• There is + singular o incontable: "There is a public telephone near here?" (pregunta: "Is there…?")
• There are + plural: "There are a few things you can do."
• "There has been a gradual increase in tourism." (singular: an increase)

25.2 Sujeto + Verbo con Sustantivos Colectivos

• People es siempre plural en inglés: "these people need" (NOT "needs")
• Furniture, money, bread, meat, tea son incontables: siempre singular.
• "Over a million dollars has been stolen." (the amount treated as a single sum → singular)

25.3 Verb Stative (Verbos Estativos)

No usan la forma continua en tiempos progresivos:

• taste, smell, seem, look, appear, know, like, love, want, need, have (posesión).
• "Your dinner tastes really good." (NOT "is tasting")
• "You look beautiful tonight." (NOT "you are looking like" para descripción estática)

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26. Oraciones Negativas: Doble Negación

En inglés estándar no se admite la doble negación. Una oración ya negativa no puede añadir un segundo elemento negativo:

• "The explanation was clear, but they understood nothing." (NOT "didn't understand nothing" — doble negación incorrecta)
• "It won't ever be the same." (NOT "won't never be")
• "My boss doesn't want anybody to do it." (NOT "doesn't want nobody")
• "I didn't do anything." (NOT "I didn't do nothing")

Tabla de correspondencias:

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27. Pronombres Indefinidos (Somebody / Anybody / Nobody / Something / Anything / Nothing)

• "I don't know anybody in this city. I need someone to chitchat with." (negativa → anybody; quiero alguien → someone en afirmativa)
• "The future is a mystery, anything could happen." (cualquier cosa posible → anything en positivo con modal de posibilidad)
• "Is there anybody home?" (interrogativa → anybody)
• "Anyone can pass that exam." (cualquiera = anyone en afirmativa genérica)
• "You can't get into a fight every time someone insults you." (afirmativa → someone)
• "What did you do during the lockdown?" — "Nothing." (respuesta sustantiva: nothing)
• "Nobody knows what is about to happen." (sujeto negativo → nobody)
• "My boss doesn't want anybody to do it." (after negative verb → anybody)
• "You need something stronger to get that engine going." (afirmativa → something)

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28. Expresiones de Tiempo en el Pasado y el Futuro

• "They went to bed right after dinner because they had to wake up early the following day." (en la narración, "tomorrow" pasa a "the following day")
• En reported speech: "one year ago" → "the year before" (NOT "the year after", NOT "one year ago")

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29. Resumen de Estructuras Recurrentes en el Examen

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Bloque 2

Gramática inglesa: bloque 2

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1. Cuantificadores: some, any, no, none, much, many, a lot of, a few, a little

Los cuantificadores indican cantidad. La elección entre ellos depende de si el nombre es contable o incontable, y del tipo de oración (afirmativa, negativa o interrogativa).

1.1 some frente a any

Regla crítica: en oraciones negativas con "don't / doesn't / didn't", siempre se usa any, nunca "some". La respuesta a "Do you have any candy?" es "No, I don't have any", no "some" ni "none" (que es pronombre independiente, sin sustantivo posterior).

none no va seguido de sustantivo: se usa como pronombre solo ("None of them came" / "None" como respuesta). Pero en la construcción "I don't have ___ pens" la respuesta correcta es any, porque ya hay negación ("don't") y hay sustantivo ("pens").

1.2 much frente a many / a lot of

Forma incorrecta: "a lots of" no existe. La forma correcta es siempre a lot of (invariable).

Ejemplos de uso correcto:

• How much sugar do we need? / That's too much! (incontable)
• How many units do you have left? (contable)
• How many guests are we talking about? (contable)
• There are so many things to do. (contable)
• How many votes did he win by? (contable)

much en afirmativas positivas suena formal o literario; en conversación se prefiere "a lot of":

• I don't have much space. (negativa, correcto)
• I have a lot of space. (afirmativa coloquial)
• I have bought a lot of water. (incontable afirmativo)

1.3 so many / so much con resultado consecutivo

Se usa so + adjetivo/adverbio + that o so many/much + nombre + that para indicar grado con consecuencia:

• He put so much salt that we couldn't eat it. (incontable → so much)
• There are so many things to do in your life. (contable → so many)
• There are so many (people) that it's impossible to contain them. (contable)

1.4 too much / too many frente a many simple

• too many/much indica exceso: "There are too many people" = hay demasiados.
• Sin "too", many solo indica cantidad elevada sin juicio: "There are many (that it's impossible...)" = muchos/as (sin "demasiados"). En la pregunta "There are so ___ that it's impossible to contain them at the border", la respuesta correcta es many (no "too many", porque "so" ya introduce la estructura de grado, no se combina con "too").

1.5 enough

enough va después del adjetivo o adverbio:

• He wasn't strong enough to lift that heavy box. (correcto)
• "enough strong" es incorrecto.

Con sustantivos, enough va delante:

• There isn't enough space.

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2. Pronombres indefinidos: something, anything, nothing, someone, anyone, no one, everywhere, anywhere, nowhere

Los compuestos de some-, any- y no- siguen las mismas reglas que "some/any/no" pero referidos a personas, cosas o lugares.

Aplicación directa:

• "Those signals are inconclusive. It could be anything." (contexto indefinido abierto → anything)
• "When you go out, anything can happen." (contexto abierto, afirmativo indefinido → anything)
• "If he can do that job, anyone can do it." (afirmativa con sentido genérico → anyone)
• "Who are you waiting for? Nobody. I'm just killing time." (negación total de persona → nobody)
• "A lot was lost, but no one is left to remember." (negación total de persona → no one)
• "Is everything all right?" (contexto afirmativo de totalidad → everything)
• "Who is waiting for you? No one. I live on my own." (negación total → no one)
• "I'd go live anywhere else before I'd ever be here." (lugar indefinido afirmativo/hipotético → anywhere)

Uso de else

else ("más", "además", "otro") se combina con pronombres indefinidos y adverbios interrogativos:

• What else can you work with? (qué más)
• else no se combina con "some-" en preguntas reales; sí con "any-": anything else, anywhere else, anyone else.

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3. Determinantes y pronombres: both, either, neither, each, all

Correlaciones:

• both... and... — afirmativa, los dos: "The audience could see neither the players nor the rackets." → aquí se usa neither...nor (negativa de dos elementos).
• neither... nor... — negativa de dos elementos: "The audience could see neither the players nor the rackets."
• either... or... — disyuntiva afirmativa (uno u otro): "She either reads a book or goes to the gym."
• both... or... no existe como correlación; sería both... and....

both como determinante premodificador:

• "They have both passed their tests." → orden: sujeto + both + auxiliar + participio. Forma correcta: "They have both passed" (o "Both of them have passed").
• "I dislike both of them." (pronombre, los dos).

neither con negación: "neither was good" (ninguno de los dos era bueno, referido a dos libros).

both para uso de dos objetos: "You can't wear both dresses at the same time." (los dos a la vez).

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4. Demostrativos: this, that, these, those

Los demostrativos indican proximidad (espacial o temporal) y concuerdan en número con el nombre al que acompañan.

Regla de distancia: cuando el hablante señala algo visible pero alejado, usa that (singular) o those (plural).

• "Is that boy? The one that is there." → el chico está lejos, es singular → that.
• "That is Luke, the boy whose parents divorced." → lejos, singular.
• "That guy over there has been following me all morning." → lejos, singular.
• "That's my car. It's parked on the corner." → señalando desde lejos, singular.

Formas inexistentes: "These's" y "Those's" no existen. El posesivo demostrativo en inglés no se forma así.

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5. Pronombres personales, posesivos y reflexivos

5.1 Pronombres personales (sujeto y objeto)

Distinción posesivo determinante / pronombre posesivo:

• "Is this your bag?" (determina al sustantivo "bag") → posesivo determinante.
• "Is this yours?" (pronombre, sustituye a "your bag") → posesivo pronombre.
• "Is this your / Can I have mine, please?" → "your" acompaña un nombre implícito ("your [one]"), "mine" es pronombre independiente.

Casos frecuentes en examen:

• "My uncle is a teacher. His job is in that school." (uncle = masculino → his).
• "The thing I like most about John are his blue eyes." (John = masculino → his, no "her").
• "Mary knows me better than she thinks." ("me" es objeto de "knows"; "she" es sujeto de "thinks").
• "Please tell us what you did." ("us" = objeto indirecto, no "ourselves" ni "ours").
• "Can you tell the people the way to the airport? I can't talk to them." ("them" = objeto de preposición).

5.2 Reflexivos

Los reflexivos se usan cuando el sujeto y el objeto son la misma persona, o para énfasis.

Formas correctas: myself, yourself, himself, herself, itself, ourselves, yourselves, themselves. Formas incorrectas: theirselves, themselfs, theirself, themself (en inglés estándar).

• "Did the kids enjoy themselves?" (sujeto = they, reflexivo = themselves).
• "You can't help yourself? It's just a question of self-control." (sujeto = you singular → yourself).
• "All the players stared at one another when the referee finished the match." (one another = acción recíproca entre más de dos personas; each other = entre dos).

5.3 Posesivos con nombres propios terminados en consonante

El posesivo sajón (apóstrofo + s) se forma:

• Nombre singular + 's: Moses**'** staff (nombre terminado en -s: se admite solo apóstrofo o apóstrofo + s, pero en examen la forma aceptada es Moses').
• Plural regular ya terminado en -s: rooms**'** doors.
• Plural irregular: children**'s**.

"The room doors" (sin apóstrofo) funciona como sustantivo compuesto ("las puertas de habitación"): "The room doors were closed." Es la forma preferida en inglés contemporáneo para nombres compuestos de dos sustantivos.

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6. Pronombres relativos: who, whom, whose, which, that, where

Regla sujeto / objeto:

• Si el relativo es el sujeto de la cláusula relativa (hace la acción), se usa who para personas: "the woman who always helps grandma".
• Si el relativo es el objeto (recibe la acción o va con preposición), se usa whom: "the friend whom you will meet at home".
• whose indica posesión: "the boy whose parents divorced" (los padres del chico = posesivo).
• where para lugares: "the place where I have my laptop repaired".
• "Can you remember the time when we were together?" → when para tiempo, no "whom".
• "He is the only person who has passed the test." (sujeto, persona → who).
• "The writer who won many enemies." (sujeto → who, no "whom").

Cláusula relativa sin pronombre: en inglés es posible omitir el pronombre relativo cuando es objeto:

• "I've found the screw (--) you were looking for." → el pronombre relativo se omite (la opción correcta marca "--").

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7. Preguntas de cortesía / preguntas indirectas

En las preguntas indirectas (embedded questions), el orden de la cláusula incrustada es sujeto + verbo (orden afirmativo), no el orden invertido de la pregunta directa.

Estructura:

(frase introductoria) + palabra interrogativa + sujeto + verbo

Errores comunes a evitar:

• "Do you know where are they going?" → orden de pregunta directa (incorrecto en indirecta).
• "I wonder what did you eat" → auxiliar "did" no se usa en indirectas.
• "whether am I torn" → "whether" introduce alternativa (sí/no), no pregunta con "what"; además el orden es incorrecto.

whether frente a if: ambos introducen preguntas indirectas de sí/no: "Do you know whether/if she is coming?"

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8. Estilo indirecto (Reported Speech)

8.1 Retroceso temporal de tiempos verbales (backshift)

Cuando el verbo introductor está en pasado, los tiempos de la cláusula reportada retroceden:

Ejemplos del examen:

• "I'll talk to the general" → he said he would talk to the general. (will → would; no "would have talked", no "would talked")
• "I am working the night shift" → he said he was working the night shift. (present continuous → past continuous)
• "I went to the Stadium yesterday" → he said he had gone to the Stadium the day before. (past simple → past perfect)
• "I will give up smoking next week" → she told me she would give up smoking the following week. (will → would; next week → the following week)
• "I am going to go to London tomorrow" → she told me she was going to go to London the next day. (am going to → was going to)
• "I like this room" → she said she liked that room. (present simple → past simple; this → that)
• "I need your essay tomorrow on my desk" → she told me she needed her essay on her desk the next day. (present simple → past simple; tomorrow → the next day; my → her)
• "I promise I will be nice tomorrow" → he promised he would be nice the next day.
• "I will call you tomorrow" → she said she would call me the next day.

Nota sobre "I want / I wanted": algunos verbos estatales como "want, need, like" pueden manterse en past simple sin pasar a past perfect cuando el hecho sigue siendo relevante, pero en los exámenes de oposición el backshift estándar es obligatorio.

8.2 Cambio de pronombres y expresiones de tiempo

8.3 Órdenes e imperativos en estilo indirecto

Las órdenes se convierten con tell + objeto + (not) to + infinitivo:

• "Don't forget the coat" → my grandmother told me not to forget my coat.
• Estructura: told + me + not to forget (infinitivo negado).
• "If you keep going down that road, you'll end up badly" → he told him that if he kept going down that road, he would end up badly. (keep → kept, will → would; el verbo en la prótasis condicional también retrocede).

8.4 Verbos de reporte con "say" y "tell"

• say no lleva objeto indirecto directo: "She said that..." / "She said to me that..."
• tell siempre lleva objeto indirecto: "She told me that..."
• Error frecuente: "My parents told that..." → falta el objeto ("told us that").

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9. Voz pasiva

9.1 Formación

sujeto + verbo to be (tiempo adecuado) + participio pasado

El agente va introducido por by:

"The meeting was cancelled by the President." (no "for the President")

9.2 Tiempos en voz pasiva

Errores comunes:

• "will painted" → falta "be": will be painted.
• "has be postponed" → participio incorrecto: has been postponed.
• "was discovering" → forma progresiva incorrecta para pasiva simple: was discovered.
• "were discovered" → si el sujeto es singular ("the gold"): was discovered.
• "have been writed" → participio irregular: was written.

9.3 Pasiva con infinitivo (verbos de percepción/conocimiento)

Con verbos como "know, believe, say, consider":

"Everybody knows this sculpture is the artist's greatest work." → "This sculpture is known to be the artist's greatest work."

Estructura: sujeto + is/are + participio + to be + complemento.

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10. Condicionales

10.1 Tipos de condicional

Ejemplos del examen:

• "If they hadn't eaten that much, they wouldn't have got this terrible feeling." → tipo 3 (pasado irreal): if + past perfect / would have + past participle.
• "If I had known you were coming, I would have baked a cake." → tipo 3: correcto.
• "They wouldn't have talked if they had known it was forbidden." → tipo 3.
• "If you want to pass the course, you will have to do much better." → tipo 1: if + present / will + have to + inf.

unless equivale a "if...not":

• "If your friend doesn't arrive before nine, we will have to leave."
• "Unless your friend arrives before nine, we will have to leave." (unless + present affirmative, sin negación dentro)

10.2 Errores frecuentes en condicional tipo 3

• "would had baked" → would have baked (have, no had).
• "would have bake" → would have baked (participio, no infinitivo).
• "hadn't / would have know" → had known (participio de know).
• "had knew" → had known (participio irregular).

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11. Modales: can, could, should, ought to, must, may, might

Los verbos modales van seguidos directamente de infinitivo sin "to" (excepto ought to, que lleva "to").

should para consejo:

• "If Michael doesn't want to miss the bus, he should wake up earlier."

ought to para obligación moral:

• "All students must finish their exercises." (must, no "must to finish").

can para capacidad / permiso:

• "Can you bring some beer?" (correcto; "Ought" sin "to" y "Should to" son incorrectos).
• "Could you speak German when you moved to Berlin?" (could + infinitivo desnudo; "Could you spoken/spoke" es incorrecto).

will para decisión espontánea:

• "The phone is ringing. I will get it." (decisión en el momento → will, no "going to").

be going to para planes previos o predicciones basadas en evidencia:

• "Where are you going to put this lamp?" (plan previo).
• "We're not going to make it, are we?" (predicción basada en evidencia).

have to para obligación externa:

• "If you want to pass, you will have to do much better." (obligación futura → will have to).
• "You must write to her." (obligación fuerte → must + infinitivo desnudo).

let para sugerencias y ofrecimientos:

• "Let me buy it for you." (let + objeto + infinitivo desnudo; sin "to", sin "will").

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12. Tiempos del presente

12.1 Present Simple

Expresa hábitos, rutinas, verdades generales y estados. Con tercera persona del singular añade -s (o -es para verbos terminados en -s, -sh, -ch, -x, -o).

Conjugación regular:

• I/you/we/they play → he/she/it plays
• "I play every Sunday." (primera persona → sin -s)
• "He always visits so many places." (tercera persona → -s)
• "Mary always gets up very early." (tercera persona → -s; "gotted" no existe)
• "What time does she start work on Mondays?" (auxiliar does + infinitivo)

Verbos de estado (stative verbs): no se usan en continuo.

• "My nephew doesn't love animals." (love = verbo de estado → simple, no "isn't loving").
• "Everybody in my town is friendly." (Everybody → singular → is).

Adverbios de frecuencia: van entre el sujeto y el verbo principal, pero después de "to be":

• "I never go to the theatre." (correcto; no "I go never")
• "She is always late." / "They are always late." (after "to be")
• "I know, they are always late!" (correcto)
• "My daughters-in-law hardly ever go to the gym." (adverbio antes del verbo principal; el verbo concuerda con el sujeto plural)

12.2 Present Continuous

Expresa acciones en progreso en el momento de hablar o planes futuros próximos.

Formación: am/is/are + verbo-ing.

• "Kate is watching TV in the living room." (acción en este momento)
• "I am writing a new book." (acción en progreso)
• "I am doing my homework." (en este momento)
• "I am making some time while he doesn't arrive." (acción en progreso)

Diferencia do frente a make (ver sección 16).

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13. Tiempos del pasado

13.1 Past Simple

Acción completada en un momento concreto del pasado (con o sin marcador temporal explícito).

• "She met Marcus 9 years ago." (marcador temporal "9 years ago" → past simple)
• "Who made this plan?" (acción pasada completada)
• "The gold was discovered a long time ago." (pasiva, pasado)
• "I was listening to my favourite song when my mother appeared." (past continuous + past simple para interrupciones)

Verbos irregulares frecuentes:

"gotted" no existe; "got" es el past simple de "get".

13.2 Past Continuous

Acción en progreso en un momento pasado. Interrumpida habitualmente por un past simple:

• "I was listening to my favourite song when my mother appeared."

Formación: was/were + verbo-ing.

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14. Present Perfect

14.1 Formación y uso

Formación: have/has + participio pasado.

Expresa:

• Acción pasada con relevancia presente.
• Experiencias de vida (sin especificar cuándo).
• Acción reciente con resultado visible.
• Acción que comenzó en el pasado y continúa.

Concordancia: he/she/it + has; I/you/we/they + have.

• "Mary has written several letters since she left home." (has + participio)
• "Hurry up! The show has already begun." (has, no have; begun, participio de begin)
• "The meeting has been postponed until the end of the month." (pasiva present perfect)
• "Some nice people have helped me a lot." (sujeto plural → have)
• "Margaret has worked in the same company for twelve years." (duración → for)
• "We have been coming to this beach since July 1995." (since + punto en el tiempo)
• "We have tried roller-skating." (experiencia de vida)
• "How long has she lived in London?" (duración → has + participio)

Participios irregulares frecuentes: begun (begin), written (write), eaten (eat), spoken (speak), taken (take), gone (go), met (meet), been (be).

14.2 Adverbios con Present Perfect

Ejemplos:

• "Hurry up! The show has already begun." (already entre has y participio)
• "I don't have a dog yet." (yet al final, oración negativa)
• "Veronica has already sent her report." (already en posición media)
• "The letter is already posted!" (pasiva, already entre auxiliar y participio)
• "Has I met you before?" → Forma correcta: "Have I met you before?" (I → have, no has)
• "We haven't eaten fish for ages." (present perfect negativo)

since frente a for:

• since + punto de inicio: "since July 1995", "since she left home".
• for + período de tiempo: "for twelve years", "for two days".
• "She hasn't slept for two days." (período → for, no since).
• "We have been coming here since July 1995." (punto de inicio → since).

already frente a yet:

• already (afirmativa/interrogativa): indica que algo ocurrió antes de lo esperado.
• yet (negativa/interrogativa): indica que algo no ha ocurrido todavía.
• "I don't have a dog yet; I will have one soon." (negativa → yet).

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15. Past Perfect

Acción anterior a otra acción pasada (pasado del pasado).

Formación: had + participio pasado.

• "If they hadn't eaten that much, they wouldn't have got..." (condición tipo 3)
• "If I had known you were coming, I would have baked a cake."
• En estilo indirecto: "I went to the Stadium yesterday" → "he said he had gone to the Stadium the day before."

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16. do frente a make: colocaciones esenciales

Una de las áreas más examinadas. No hay regla universal; hay que memorizar las colocaciones más frecuentes.

Se usa do con:

• tareas, deberes, trabajo: do homework, do research, do exercise, do a course
• actividades y deportes (de forma genérica): do sport, do yoga
• favores: do a favour
• daño: do damage
• lo correcto/incorrecto: do the right thing

Se usa make con:

• crear, producir, construir: make a list, make a cake, make a plan, make a decision
• dinero: make money
• comentarios, promesas, ofertas: make a joke, make a promise
• ruido: make noise
• un error: make a mistake
• phrasal: make fun of (burlarse de)

Ejemplos del examen:

• "After a month doing some research..." (do research → doing)
• "I am doing my homework." (do homework)
• "She needs to do some exercise." (do exercise)
• "He is always making jokes." (make jokes)
• "I am making some time while he doesn't arrive." (making time = pasar el tiempo)
• "Don't make fun of people." (make fun of)
• "I am doing a new book" → INCORRECTO; "I am writing a new book."

Diferencia importante: "I am doing my homework" (do homework) vs. "I am making a cake" (make a cake).

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17. Adjetivos y adverbios: formación, posición y gradación

17.1 Formación de adverbios

La mayoría de los adverbios de modo se forman añadiendo -ly al adjetivo:

• careful → carefully
• quick → quickly
• full → fully
• ugly → uglily (infrecuente; el adjetivo "ugly" casi siempre actúa solo como adjetivo)

Posición: adverbio modifica al verbo, adjetivo modifica al sustantivo:

• "She drives the car carefully. I can tell she is a careful driver." (adverbio + adjetivo)
• "I ran quickly to the station. I was late." (quickly modifica "ran"; late es predicativo)

Formas comparativas irregulares: "quicklier" y "quickliest" no existen; "quickly" es irregular solo en el superlativo de forma compuesta: more quickly / most quickly.

17.2 Adjetivos participiales (-ed / -ing)

• Adjetivo en -ed: describe cómo se siente el sujeto (resultado de una acción externa).

• Adjetivo en -ing: describe la causa o la característica del objeto/persona.

• "I was really discouraged with my results." (-ed → el sujeto siente la emoción)

• "discouragely" no existe.

• "discouraging" describe la causa (los resultados son desalentadores), no el sujeto.

17.3 Comparativos y superlativos

Regla general:

• Adjetivos cortos (1 sílaba, o 2 acabados en -y): -er / -est
• Adjetivos largos (2+ sílabas): more / the most

Irregulares esenciales:

Ejemplos del examen:

• "The test was far easier than I expected." (easy → easier; "more easy" es incorrecto con adjetivo corto; "easier as" incorrecto, debe ser "than")
• "Michael and Jonathan are bad singers, but they aren't the worst in our choir." (bad → the worst)
• "The situation got worse; you were right all the time." (worse = comparativo de bad; "worsely" no existe; right es adjetivo, no "rightly" = adverbio; "were right" = tenías razón)
• "Do you know the sunniest place in the USA?" (sunny → sunniest; "the most sunniest" es doble superlativo, incorrecto)
• "Who is the best tennis player in your country?" (superlativo + in para áreas geográficas)
• "The more we are, the better!" (estructura comparativa correlativa: the + comparativo, the + comparativo)
• "The rabbits I have are faster than yours." (pronombre posesivo, no adjetivo)

"as + adjetivo + as" para igualdad: "He wasn't as strong as..." Pero la pregunta usa "strong enough" (suficientemente fuerte), no "as strong".

far como intensificador de comparativo: "far easier than" = mucho más fácil que. "Far" aquí no es comparativo, sino enfatizador.

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18. Exclamativas: What (a/an) y How

Regla artículo:

• Nombre contable singular → What a (consonante) / What an (vocal): "What a cheap car!" / "What an ugly bike!"
• Nombre contable plural → What (sin artículo): "What fascinating animals!" / "What interesting questions!" / "What strong arms!"
• Nombre incontable → What (sin artículo): "What delicious sandwiches" → en realidad "sandwiches" es plural contable → What (sin "a").
• Solo adjetivo / adverbio, sin nombre → How: "How unlucky we have been!" / "How difficult these questions are!" / "How fascinating!"

Errores comunes:

• "What a fascinating animals" → "animals" es plural → What fascinating animals.
• "How a" → How nunca lleva artículo.
• "What a rude guy" → "rude guy" contable singular → What a rude guy ✓.
• "What a cheap car this is!" → correcto (contable singular).
• "___ delicious sandwiches they make here!" → plural → What (sin "a").

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19. Conjunciones de contraste y concesión

19.1 although / even though / though

Van seguidos de sujeto + verbo (oración completa):

• "Although I was tired, I decided to go partying."
• "___ he is very rich, he lives in an old house." → "Despite the fact that he is very rich..." o "Although he is very rich..."

19.2 despite / in spite of

Van seguidos de nombre / pronombre / gerundio (nunca de oración completa con sujeto + verbo finito):

• "Despite arriving early, there were no empty seats." (gerundio)
• "Despite the fact that he is rich, he lives in an old house." (despite the fact that + oración)
• "Despite the rain, we went out." (nombre)

Errores comunes:

• "Despite of" → despite no lleva "of" (a diferencia de "in spite of").
• "In spite" solo (sin "of") → incorrecto: siempre in spite of.
• "I finished the homework. It, however, wasn't easy." (however = adverbio conjuntivo, requiere punto y coma o punto antes; puede usarse entre comas en medio de oración)

19.3 however / nevertheless

Son adverbios conjuntivos (conectores), no conjunciones subordinantes. No pueden conectar dos oraciones independientes con solo una coma (en registro formal), pero sí pueden ir entre comas en medio de una oración:

• "I finished the homework. It, however, wasn't easy." (correcto)
• "Due to" introduce causa (no contraste): "Due to his illness, he couldn't come."

19.4 so as to / in order to

Expresan finalidad (para + infinitivo):

• "She studies hard so as to pass the exam."
• No son conjunciones de contraste.

19.5 Resumen contrastivo

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20. Uso de used to y use to en preguntas e interrogativas

used to expresa hábitos o estados pasados que ya no existen:

• Afirmativa: "I used to go running." (solía)
• Negativa: "I didn't use to run." (no solía) — tras "did", la forma es use to (sin -d).
• Interrogativa: "Did you use to go to the cinema?" — tras "did", siempre use to.

Regla crítica: el auxiliar "did" ya lleva la marca de pasado; el verbo principal queda en infinitivo sin -d:

• "Did you used to go?" → INCORRECTO.
• "Did you use to go to the cinema?" ✓

get used to / be used to (acostumbrarse a / estar acostumbrado a) van seguidos de gerundio o nombre, no de infinitivo. Son estructuras distintas de "used to":

• "I am used to waking up early." (estoy acostumbrado a)
• "I didn't use to" (en respuesta a "Did you use to go?") → "I didn't use to; I always drove." ✓

Ejemplo del examen: "Did you use to walk to work?" / "I didn't, I always drive my car." → la forma "use to / use to" (ambas con auxiliar did / didn't) es la correcta.

"Now I often go running, but I didn't use to run years ago." → "often go" para presente habitual; "didn't use to" para hábito pasado negado.

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21. Acuerdo y desacuerdo: estructuras so, neither, nor

Para expresar que algo también aplica o tampoco aplica al hablante, se usan estructuras especiales con inversión.

21.1 Acuerdo afirmativo: so + aux + sujeto

• "I like walking around the countryside and so does he." (he also likes it)
• "They are engineers and so are my parents." (my parents are also engineers)
• "They'll probably go next Sunday and so will I." (I will also go)
• Orden: so + auxiliar + sujeto (inversión obligatoria).
• "so he likes" → incorrecto (no hay inversión).
• "so my parents are" → incorrecto (auxiliar antes del sujeto).

21.2 Acuerdo negativo: neither/nor + aux + sujeto

• "They're not 18, and neither are you." (you are also not 18)
• "We've never been to Italy." "Nor have I." / "Neither have I."
• "Richard's never travelled to Barcelona." "Neither have they." (they have also never travelled)
• "He'd never cheat, and neither would I." (I would also never cheat)
• "I didn't go to work today." "Neither did I." (I also didn't go)
• Orden: neither/nor + auxiliar + sujeto (inversión obligatoria).
• "Neither had she" en respuesta a "never travelled" con present perfect → debe ser Neither have they (present perfect → have).
• "Nor did I" en respuesta a "We've never been" (present perfect) → Nor have I (mismo tiempo: present perfect).

21.3 "I think so" y "I don't think so"

Para expresar acuerdo tentativo o suposición:

• "Are you going to join us?" "I think so." (creo que sí)
• "I think he's going to get in trouble." "I think so." (yo también lo creo)
• "So I will" → incorrecto para este uso.

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22. Preposiciones de lugar y movimiento

22.1 Preposiciones de lugar más frecuentes

Notas de examen:

• "He's always sitting at his desk, opposite the window." (at para puestos de trabajo/estudio; opposite = enfrente de, mirando hacia)
• "There's a poster on the wall, above the desk." (on para superficies verticales; above = encima sin contacto)
• "It's between the library and the park, opposite the post office." (between para dos referencias; opposite para enfrente)
• "between" es incorrecto para describir un vehículo frente a otro cuando hay jerarquía/tamaño; sin embargo, gramaticalmente "Is the lorry between the car?" sería incorrecto porque "between" requiere dos referencias (X between A and B). La pregunta marca como INCORRECTA la opción "between" cuando se usa con solo un elemento de referencia ("the car" sin segundo elemento).

22.2 Preposiciones de tiempo

Ejemplos del examen:

• "We have our lessons on Thursdays at 9:00." (día → on; hora → at)
• "He fell and broke his hip during his last visit to Germany." (periodo definido → during)
• "We have been coming to this beach since July 1995." (punto de inicio → since)
• "She hasn't slept for two days." (período → for)
• "I try to make dinner while my sons are having a shower." (simultaneidad + oración → while)
• "When I arrived home, I put on my pyjamas." (momento concreto → when)

22.3 Preposiciones de transporte

• by + medio de transporte (sin artículo): by bus, by plane, by train, by car.
• on + foot: on foot.
• "You can't get there by bus or on foot, you should go by plane or train." ✓

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23. Phrasal verbs y expresiones frecuentes

"set apart" (separar, poner aparte / distinguir): "Please set apart the clothes you have already chosen." = pon aparte / selecciona.

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24. Plurales irregulares de sustantivos

"roofs" es la única forma estándar moderna: "I have to fix the roofs of my garage and my house." "knives" (cuchillos): "Those knives are being sharpened." (plural → "those", verbo plural "are").

Compuestos con guion: el plural se forma en el núcleo:

• daughter-in-law → daughters-in-law.
• "My daughters-in-law hardly ever go to the gym." (sujeto plural → verbo plural "go", no "goes")

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25. Artículos: a, an, the y artículo cero

25.1 a frente a an

• a antes de sonido consonántico: a cheap car, a rude guy, a young boss.
• an antes de sonido vocálico: an ugly bike, an age limit.

"What a cheap car!" (sonido consonántico /tʃ/ → a). "What an ugly bike!" (sonido vocálico /ʌ/ → an).

25.2 Artículo con profesiones

Tras "be" con profesiones en singular, se usa el artículo indefinido:

• "Nigel is a baker." (singular → artículo)
• "Tod and Rudolph are priests." (plural → sin artículo)
• "a priests" → incorrecto; el plural no lleva "a".

25.3 Artículo cero

Sin artículo con:

• Nombres propios (en general).
• Sustantivos plurales en sentido genérico.
• Sustantivos incontables en sentido genérico.
• Medios de transporte con "by": by bus.

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26. Preposiciones con verbos y adjetivos: colocaciones clave

"worry about": "Don't worry so much about the exam." "depend on": "My future depends on that test." (no "depends of", no "depend on") "I prefer X to Y": "I prefer rice to French fries." (not "than")

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27. Concordancia sujeto-verbo en casos especiales

27.1 Sujetos colectivos e indefinidos singulares

Los siguientes sujetos, aunque semánticamente puedan referirse a grupos, son gramaticalmente singulares y exigen verbo en singular:

• "Everybody in my town is friendly." (is, no "are" ni "have")

27.2 Sujetos plurales reales

• "Some nice people have helped me a lot." (people = plural → have)
• "Many accidents are caused by irresponsibility." (accidents = plural → are)
• "Every year, many vaccines are given to the citizens." (vaccines = plural → are)
• "Those knives are being sharpened." (knives = plural → are)

27.3 Sustantivos incontables

• space (espacio) es incontable → verbo singular, cuantificador "a lot of" o "much":
  • "There was a lot of space to run." (was, no were; a lot of, no "many" ni "a few")

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28. Adjetivos posesivos y pronombres posesivos: revisión de uso

La diferencia clave entre el adjetivo posesivo (determina a un nombre) y el pronombre posesivo (sustituye a nombre + adjetivo posesivo):

• "Is this your bag?" (your + bag = adjetivo posesivo)
• "Is this yours?" (= your bag, sin el nombre = pronombre posesivo)
• "Is this yours? Can I have mine, please?" (yours = pronombre; mine = pronombre)
• "The rabbits I have are faster than yours." (yours = your rabbits)
• "His job is in that school." (his + job = adjetivo posesivo, referido a "my uncle")
• "George and Richard took over the business from their father." (their + father = adjetivo posesivo)

Posesivo de nombre propio terminado en -s:

• "Moses' staff had divine powers." (apóstrofo solo tras nombre propio terminado en -s, forma más común en exámenes; también se acepta "Moses's" en algunos estilos)

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29. Tiempo verbal be going to frente a will: revisión

• "The phone is ringing. I will get it." (decisión espontánea en el momento → will)
• "Where are you going to put this lamp?" (plan previo → going to)
• "We're not going to make it, are we?" (predicción con evidencia → going to)
• "If you want to pass the course, you will have to do much better." (predicción/obligación futura → will have to)

I wish + pasado o would:

• "I wish Laura would participate in this organisation." (deseo sobre el futuro o comportamiento de otra persona → would + infinitivo; no "would participated", no "participates")

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30. Estructura such (a/an) frente a so

Regla práctica:

• Si hay nombre contable singular → such a/an + adj + noun: "That was such a bad concert!"
• Si hay nombre contable plural o incontable → such + adj + noun: "We'd better not go out in such unpleasant weather."
• Si no hay nombre (solo adjetivo o adverbio) → so: "It's so warm today." / "She screamed so loud."
• Para intensificar adjetivo + nombre con estructura consecutiva: "He was such a young boss." / "The subway was so full that..." (so + adjetivo sin nombre).

Ejemplos del examen:

• "He put so much salt that we couldn't eat it." (so + much + incontable)
• "She screamed so loud that the crystals got shattered." (so + adjetivo/adverbio, sin nombre)
• "He had to decline such a big responsibility." (such a + adj + nombre singular)
• "That was such a bad concert." (such a + adj + nombre singular)
• "The subway was so full that..." (so + adj solo)
• "It's so warm today." (so + adj solo)
• "We'd better not go out in such unpleasant weather." (such + adj + incontable)
• "He has such a young boss." → (such + a + nombre singular) = "He has such a young boss." ✓
• "I am so delighted to invite you." (so + adjetivo, sin nombre)
• "He is so tired that he couldn't continue." (so + adjetivo)
• "Sonia entered the room so quietly that we didn't hear her." (so + adverbio)
• "The building has entirely been destroyed by the fire." (has + entirely + been + participio: posición del adverbio entre auxiliar y participio en pasiva present perfect)

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31. Preguntas con How: expresiones interrogativas compuestas

"How high is the Tower of London? It is 98 metres high." → How high (no "What high") + respuesta con "metres high".

"How long has she been fixing the computer?" → duración de acción en progreso → How long (no "How far", no "What time").

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Bloque 3

Gramática Inglesa — Parte 3

Temario completo para oposiciones (Inglés Guardia Civil)

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1. Verbos: tiempos y formas

1.1 Present Simple

El Present Simple describe acciones habituales, hechos generales o estados permanentes.

Formación:

• Afirmativa: sujeto + verbo base (3ª persona singular añade -s/-es)
• Negativa: sujeto + do/does not + verbo base
• Interrogativa: Do/Does + sujeto + verbo base

Regla crítica: la 3ª persona del singular (he/she/it) siempre lleva -s. El auxiliar en interrogativas y negativas es do/does, no el verbo léxico.

• "We ___ television every day." → watch (no "watches", el sujeto es "we")
• "Most people ___ to visit a doctor." → don't like (3ª plural, auxiliar do)
• "___ children ___ animals?" → Do - like (sujeto plural, verbo base)

Uso para profesiones y rutinas permanentes:

• "What does Frank do?" → responde con profesión: "He's a politician." (no describe actividad puntual)
• "Where does Fernando work?" → "He works in an office." (lugar permanente de trabajo)

Uso frente al Present Continuous: los verbos de estado (like, know, prefer, weigh) no se usan en continua.

• "- Does she weigh? - She weighs 65 kilos." → How much (no "How many")

1.2 Present Continuous

Describe acciones en progreso en el momento de hablar o planes futuros ya organizados.

Formación: sujeto + am/is/are + verbo-ing

• "I'm looking at the woman, she ___ a nice hat." → is wearing (acción presente en curso)
• "No, wait! He ___ a shower at the moment." → is having (acción en curso)
• "Please keep quiet, I ___ to the radio." → am listening (en este instante)

Contraste con el Present Simple en el mismo enunciado:

• "I ___ to the radio. You know I ___ to the news in the mornings." → am listening / love listening (primera parte: acción en curso; segunda: hábito con verbo de emoción en simple)

Futuro planificado con Present Continuous:

• "I ___ out now, mum. Bye!" / "What time ___ home?" → am going / are you coming (planes ya decididos y concretos)

1.3 Past Simple

Describe acciones completadas en un momento específico del pasado.

Formación:

• Verbos regulares: infinitivo + -ed (walked, worked)
• Verbos irregulares: forma propia (go → went, win → won, fall → fell, hear → heard, take → took)
• Interrogativa/negativa: did + sujeto + verbo base

Errores frecuentes:

• "heared" no existe → la forma correcta es heard
• "herd" no existe → heard
• "goed" no existe → went
• Tras "did" en negativas/interrogativas el verbo va en base, nunca en pasado: "Did he go?" (no "Did he went?")

Ejemplos del examen:

• "Dr. Johnson ___ early this morning." → got up (momento concreto: "this morning")
• "-Who ___ the match last night? -I don't know, I ___ asleep." → won / fell
• "- Did you steal that car? - No. I just ___ it." → borrowed (verbo regular, pasado simple)
• "What ___ to you yesterday? I was ___ about to die." → happened (pasado simple, interrogativa con inversión sujeto-auxiliar: "What happened?" no "What did happen?")

Interrogativas con "who" como sujeto: cuando "who" es el sujeto, no se usa "did":

• "Who sent your enemies to jail?" (no "Who did sent")

1.4 Past Continuous

Describe una acción en progreso en un momento pasado, frecuentemente interrumpida por otra (en Past Simple).

Formación: sujeto + was/were + verbo-ing

• "was/were" depende del sujeto; "you" → were (nunca "was you")

Ejemplos:

• "I ___ a noise while I ___." → heard / was reading (acción puntual interrumpe la continua)
• "Can you remember what ___ when you lost your handbag?" → you were wearing (orden SVO en pregunta indirecta, no inversión)
• "Select the question for: Last night, Peter was studying." → "What was Peter doing last night?" (no "What was doing Peter": el sujeto va entre auxiliar y participio/gerundio)

1.5 Past Perfect Simple

Expresa una acción anterior a otra acción pasada ("el pasado del pasado").

Formación: sujeto + had + participio pasado

• "When I ___ home, María ___." → got / had already left (primero se fue María, luego llegué yo; el Past Simple marca el punto de referencia, el Past Perfect la acción previa)
• "I ___ the flat if I ___ you were coming for good." → wouldn't have sold / had known (condicional tipo 3)

En reported speech el Present Perfect retrocede a Past Perfect:

• "I haven't called" → "he hadn't called"
• "I have never tasted" → "he had never tasted"

1.6 Present Perfect Simple

Expresa acciones pasadas con relevancia en el presente, o experiencias de vida sin tiempo definido.

Formación: sujeto + have/has + participio pasado

• "have" para I/you/we/they; "has" para he/she/it (nunca "have" con 3ª persona singular)

Participios irregulares clave:

Errores frecuentes: "have wrote" → have written; "have cooked" correcto para he/she con "has".

Ejemplos del examen:

• "They ___ to the politician." → have written (sujeto plural: have; participio: written)
• "Lucy ___ breakfast." → has cooked (3ª singular: has; no "have cook")
• "Paula ___ a mess in the kitchen." → has made (3ª singular)
• "___ the bus?" → Has she missed (3ª singular; participio: missed)
• "They ___ to Scotland." → have gone (sujeto plural)

"been" vs "gone":

• been = fue y volvió (experiencia): "Rebecca loves Paris. She's ___ there many times." → been
• gone = fue y todavía está allí: "Where's your father? I think he's ___ to work." → gone

Present Perfect con marcadores temporales:

• yet (en negativas e interrogativas): "They haven't visited your sister ___." → yet
• already (en afirmativas, acción antes de lo esperado): "Did you send the report? No, I'm ___ finishing it." → still (todavía en proceso, no yet ni already)
• still (acción continua, en negativas indica persistencia): "I ___ a cigarette for weeks." → haven't smoked
• for + período de tiempo: "The warehouse is almost empty. The manager ___ the weekend." → hasn't bought supplies since (since + punto de inicio; for + duración)
• since + punto de inicio: "How long ___ in Panama? Since I got married." → have you lived / Since

"How long" con Present Perfect:

• "How long ___ in Panama?" → have you lived (duración hasta el presente)
• "The main suspect ___. How long ___ at the police station?" → has already been arrested / has he been

1.7 Tiempos en contraste: Present Perfect vs Past Simple

• "I ___ in Zaragoza for a long time, I ___ in 2012." → have lived / moved ("for a long time" conecta al presente → Present Perfect; "in 2012" es fecha concreta → Past Simple)

1.8 "Used to" y "would" para hábitos pasados

"Used to" + infinitivo: hábito o estado pasado que ya no existe.

• Afirmativa: used to + infinitivo base
• Interrogativa: Did + sujeto + use to + infinitivo (no "used to" en preguntas con "did")
• Negativa: didn't use to + infinitivo

"Would" + infinitivo: solo para acciones habituales pasadas (no estados).

Errores del examen:

• "using / use to / used" → la forma correcta es used to
• "Did you used to" → incorrecto; la forma correcta es "Did you use to"
• "Were you used to do" → incorrecto para hábitos pasados

Ejemplos:

• "When I was younger, I ___ read every day. I would love to ___ it again." → used to / get used to
• "I ___ listen to music when I was a child." → used to
• "What ___ in your free time when you were younger? I ___ football in a team." → did you use to do / used to play
• "___ in Dubai several years ago?" → Did you use to live (interrogativa con "did" + "use to")

"Get used to" + gerundio (-ing): acostumbrarse gradualmente. "Be used to" + gerundio (-ing): estar acostumbrado (estado).

1.9 "Going to" vs Will (futuro)

"Going to": planes ya decididos o predicciones basadas en evidencia presente.

• "Please, don't play with the kitchen knife, someone ___." → is going to get hurt (evidencia visible)
• "I don't know yet, but he ___ to Brazil this holidays." → may go (posibilidad, no certeza)

"Will": decisiones espontáneas, predicciones generales, promesas.

• "She ___ back home unless ___." → won't come / I ask her (condición: presente simple en la subordinada condicional)

1.10 Verbos modales

Los modales no añaden -s en 3ª persona y van seguidos de infinitivo base (sin "to"), salvo ought to y have to.

"Must have" + participio: deducción sobre el pasado.

• "She ___ those drunkards shouting all night." → must have heard (única explicación lógica)
• Formas incorrectas: "mights heard", "could had hear", "might have hearing"

Modal + "be": la forma del verbo "to be" tras modal es siempre be (infinitivo).

• "___ some problems with the engine." → There might be (no "might are", "might been", "might is")
• "___ a high risk of contagion." → There will be (no "will being", "will been")
• "___ a few people in class today." → There have been (Present Perfect de "there is/are")

"Must check" vs "must to check": los modales no llevan "to" (excepto "have to", "ought to").

• "We ___ the times of the flights again." → must check (no "must to check")

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2. Condicionales

2.1 Condicional Tipo 1 (real, probable)

Estructura: If + Present Simple, will + infinitivo

• Se usa para situaciones reales o posibles en el futuro.
• "She ___ back home unless ___." → won't come / I ask her (unless = if not; la cláusula con "unless" va en Present Simple)

2.2 Condicional Tipo 2 (irreal presente)

Estructura: If + Past Simple, would + infinitivo

Nota: en la cláusula con "if", el verbo "to be" usa were para todos los sujetos en inglés formal/estándar (aunque "was" es aceptable en coloquial, los exámenes de oposición prefieren "were").

• "If ___ you, I ___ a new car." → I were / would buy
• "My ESL teacher would be very happy if I ___ every day." → read (Past Simple de "read"; la forma es idéntica al infinitivo pero corresponde al pasado)
• "I don't know his phone number, so I can't ring him. If I ___ his phone number, I ___ to ring him." → knew / would be able

2.3 Condicional Tipo 3 (irreal pasado, arrepentimiento)

Estructura: If + had + participio pasado, would have + participio pasado

• "Richard didn't pass the exam because he hadn't studied. If Richard ___ studied, he ___ the exam." → had studied / would have passed
• "I ___ the flat if I ___ you were coming for good." → wouldn't have sold / had known
• "Ralph ___ ill if he ___ so many chocolates." → wouldn't have become / hadn't eaten (atención: "become" es el participio correcto, no "became")
• "If I ___ the opportunity, I ___ you." → had had / would have killed ("had had" = pasado perfecto de "have")
• "I ___ a cigarette for weeks." → aquí no es condicional, es Present Perfect negativo: haven't smoked

Trampas comunes en el Tipo 3:

• "would has passed" → incorrecto; debe ser would have passed
• "would have pass" → incorrecto; el participio es passed
• "wouldn't had sold" → incorrecto; debe ser wouldn't have sold
• "hadn't ate" → incorrecto; el participio de "eat" es eaten

2.4 "As long as" en condicionales

"As long as" equivale a "provided that" (siempre que/con tal de que). La cláusula subordinada va en Present Simple, no en futuro.

• "As long as she ___ me, I'll be there for her." → needs (no "will need")

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3. Estilo indirecto (Reported Speech)

3.1 Cambios de tiempo verbal (backshift)

Al transformar el discurso directo en indirecto con verbo introductor en pasado (said, told, asked), los tiempos retroceden un escalón:

Cambios de expresiones temporales:

3.2 Cambios de pronombres

Los pronombres se ajustan a la perspectiva del narrador:

• "I" → he/she
• "my" → his/her
• "you" (al hablante) → me / I
• "our" → their

Ejemplo:

• "Charles said: 'I broke my arm climbing last month'." → "Charles said he had broken his arm climbing the month before."
• "My father told me I ___ to follow ___ teacher's example." → had / my (el padre le habla al hijo; "your teacher" pasa a "my teacher" desde la perspectiva del hijo reportando)

3.3 Preguntas indirectas (reported questions)

Las preguntas indirectas siguen el orden afirmativo (sujeto + verbo), sin inversión y sin auxiliar "do/did".

Con palabra interrogativa (wh-):

• Directo: "How much does this sweater cost?"

• Indirecto: "Can you tell me how much this sweater costs?" (no "does ... cost"; verbo conjugado en orden normal)

• Directo: "What did it look like?"

• Indirecto: "Do you know what it looked like?" (backshift: "did look" → "looked")

• Directo: "How was the film?"

• Indirecto: "Do you know how the film was?" (inversión eliminada; no "how was the film")

• Directo: "Who did you meet at the party?"

• Indirecto: "I would like to know who you met at the party." (no "who did you met")

• Directo: "Where did you have lunch?"

• Indirecto: "Sam asked where we had had lunch." (had lunch → Past Perfect en indirecto)

• Directo: "How often had they done this?"

• Indirecto: "Would you let me know how often they had done this?" (ya en Past Perfect, se mantiene)

• Directo: "What could have happened?"

• Indirecto: "Can you let me know what could have happened?" (modal perfecto no cambia)

Con preguntas sí/no: "if" o "whether":

• Directo: "Did she finish the report?"

• Indirecto: "Did you check if she finished the report?" (no "if did she finish"; orden SVO)

• Directo: "Was David the first to arrive?"

• Indirecto: "Can you tell me if David was the first to arrive?" (no "if was David")

• Directo: "Is there a reason to leave your car under the sun?"

• Indirecto: "Mary asked us if there was a reason to leave our car under the sun."

• Directo: "Did you bring your waterproof jackets?"

• Indirecto: "She asked them if they had brought their waterproof jackets." (no "bringed"; participio: brought)

3.4 Oraciones declarativas en reported speech

Verbos introductores: say (that), tell + objeto + (that)

• "say" no lleva objeto directo de persona: "he said (that)..."
• "tell" lleva objeto: "he told me (that)..."

Ejemplos del examen:

• "Peter said that Titanic ___ the best movie he ___." → was / had ever seen (is → was; have ever seen → had ever seen)
• "Tom said he ___." → was starving (am starving → was starving)
• "Alice told me: 'I'm working on it now'." → "Alice told me she was working on it then." (am working → was working; now → then)
• "Lucas told me that he hadn't called the travel agency yet." (haven't called → hadn't called)
• "Emily said that their teacher ___ go to Madrid ___." → would / the following day (will → would; tomorrow → the following day)
• "Frank told us he might be in our town the following day." (may → might; tomorrow → the following day)
• "Jenny said that she had bought a new shirt the day before." (bought → had bought; yesterday → the day before)
• "His sister told him that she had written that will the previous year." (wrote → had written; last year → the previous year)
• "Julian told me he was going to send me a picture." (going to se mantiene pero retrocede: am going → was going; you → me)

3.5 Órdenes en reported speech

Las órdenes se transforman con: told/ordered/asked + objeto + to + infinitivo.

• Directo: "Stand up everybody!" → "The sergeant ordered them to stand up." (no "ordered they to stand up")
• Directo: "Can you help me with the dinner?" → "Tomas asked if I could help him with the dinner." (pregunta: if + could; pronombre: him)

3.6 Cambios de modales en reported speech

• can → could: "I can stay here" → "he could stay there"
• may → might: "I may be in your town" → "he might be in our town"
• must (obligación) → had to: "You must report" → "I had to report"
• "He asked me if he ___ my car." → could borrow (can → could; "borrow" no "lend": borrow = tomar prestado, lend = prestar)

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4. Voz pasiva

4.1 Formación

Estructura: sujeto (paciente) + to be (conjugado) + participio pasado + (by + agente)

El tiempo de "to be" se corresponde con el tiempo de la oración activa:

4.2 Participios irregulares en pasiva

Errores habituales: "was took" → was taken; "was sended" → was sent; "was discover" → was discovered; "has decorated" (activa) → has been decorated (pasiva).

Ejemplos del examen:

• "Turn into passive: 'The police took the criminal away'." → "The criminal was taken away by the police." (took → was taken)
• "The tickets ___ until you arrive." → won't be sent (future passive; "sended" no existe)
• "REWRITE USING PASSIVE VOICE: The students have decorated the classroom." → "The classroom has been decorated by the students." (sujeto singular → has been + pp; "have been" sería para plural)
• "___ that the painting is a fake." → It is now believed (impersonal passive, presente)
• "A rare species of insect ___ in the Amazon." → was discovered (Past Simple passive; singular → was)
• "These exercises will ___ these girls." → be done by (will + be + pp)
• "The Mona Lisa ___ in the Louvre." → can be seen (modal passive: can + be + pp)
• Turn into active: "Thirty people have been hurt by the hurricane." → "The hurricane has hurt thirty people." (sujeto activo = the hurricane; tiempo: Present Perfect)

4.3 Pasiva impersonal con "It is believed/said/known..."

Se forma con "It + be + participio de verbos de opinión + that":

• "It is now believed that the painting is a fake."

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5. Preguntas directas e indirectas

5.1 Formación de preguntas directas

Con auxiliar do/does/did:

• Pregunta por el objeto: auxiliar + sujeto + verbo base
• "How often ___ exercise?" → does Helen take (3ª singular, no "does take Helen")

Con verbo "to be" o modales: inversión directa sujeto-verbo.

Preguntas por el sujeto (who/what como sujeto): no llevan auxiliar.

• "Who sent that car?" (who es el sujeto)
• "What made him change his mind?" → made (what sujeto; no "did make")

Preguntas por tiempo, lugar, modo:

• "___ to get to the airport?" → How long does it take you (no "How long it takes", no "How many time")
• "___ do you like to eat?" → What (qué; no "where", "when" ni "why")
• "___ is she?" → How (estado/salud)
• "___ would you like to go to the beach?" → When (tiempo)
• "___ do you drink when you ___?" → What / are thirsty (adjetivo, no "thirst" ni "thirty")

5.2 Preguntas sobre la identidad de un objeto

• "Do you know ___ car this is?" → whose (posesión; no "who", "where", "whom")
• "What's that? It's ___ machine." → a (machine empieza por consonante; "an" se usa con sonido vocálico)
• "What do you think is ___ light you see in the distance?" → that (singular, distante; no "those" ni "these")

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6. Question tags (coletillas interrogativas)

Las question tags verifican información o buscan confirmación. La regla es:

• Oración afirmativa → tag negativa
• Oración negativa → tag afirmativa
• El auxiliar de la tag corresponde al de la oración principal.

Formación:

• "We wouldn't go to see him, ___?" → would we (oración negativa con "wouldn't" → tag afirmativa con "would")

Verbo "to be" sin auxiliar:

• "Your father isn't very tall. ___" → Neither am I. (el verbo principal es "am")
• "We can't afford a car! ___ we!" → Nor can (can → can)

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7. Exclamaciones (Exclamatory sentences)

Las exclamaciones con "What" y "How" siguen reglas diferentes:

"What" + (a/an) + adjetivo + sustantivo

• Se usa cuando la exclamación incluye un sustantivo.
• Con sustantivo contable singular: What a/an + adj + sustantivo
• Con sustantivo incontable o plural: What + adj + sustantivo (sin artículo)

"How" + adjetivo/adverbio

• Se usa cuando no hay sustantivo en la exclamación, o cuando el núcleo es un adjetivo o adverbio solo.

Identificación práctica: si la exclamación lleva un nombre contable singular, usa "What a/an". Si solo hay adjetivo o adverbio, usa "How".

Ejemplos del examen:

• "___ weird you are behaving!" → How (adjetivo solo, sin sustantivo)
• "___ impressive your new sculpture is!" → How (adjetivo solo)
• "___ lovely my mother is! she is ___ helpful!" → How / so (adjetivos sin sustantivo)
• "___ beautiful portrait that I'm sorry I have to sell it." → such a (intensificador con sustantivo, no exclamación How/What)
• "___ home you have built!" → What a beautiful (sustantivo contable singular "home")
• "___ awful apple pie my uncle makes!" → What an (apple empieza por vocal → "an")
• "___ tasty tea we drank yesterday!" → What (tea es incontable → sin artículo)
• "Wow! ___" ante una cueva → How beautiful! (adjetivo, sin sustantivo)
• "___ cute!" → How cute! (adjetivo solo)
• "___ bad news!" → Such (bad news es sustantivo incontable; intensificador "such")
• "It took ___ time to do." → so much (time incontable + so much)
• "He swims ___ quickly!" → so (adverbio; no "such")

Resumen comparativo What/How:

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8. Cuantificadores

8.1 "Much", "many", "a lot of", "lots of"

• "Look at the sky! You can see ___ birds flying southwards." → so many (birds: contable plural; "so much" solo con incontables)
• "___ water do you think you need?" → How much (water: incontable)
• "There is ___ water in the bath tub." → too much (incontable)
• "___ paper will I need?" → How much (paper: incontable)
• "That computer can handle ___ data." → a lot of (data: incontable; "lots" sin "of" → incorrecto; "a lots of" → incorrecto)

8.2 "So many / so much" y "too many / too much"

• so many / so much: expresan grado con valor exclamativo o consecutivo.
• too many / too much: expresan exceso negativo.
• "___ of your clients are stupid." → Too many of (contable plural "clients")

8.3 "A few" / "few" / "a little" / "little"

• "How much water / Just ___ bottles." → a few (bottles contable; cantidad suficiente para el contexto)
• "Sadly, there were ___ people in the concert." → few (insuficientes; contraste con "a few" que sería neutro o positivo)
• "___ few people in class today." → There have been + a few (hay algunos, pero la pregunta testa el verbo, no el cuantificador)

8.4 "Some" / "any"

• "Although he had some good friends, now he doesn't have ___." → any (negativa)
• "We didn't buy ___ clothes but we bought ___." → any / some food (negativa → any; afirmativa → some)
• "Are there ___ oranges left? No, and we don't have ___ apples." → any / any (interrogativa + negativa)
• "- Do you want a snack? - I don't want to eat ___ now." → anything (negativa; pronombre indefinido)
• "I don't want to eat anything" (no "nothing": doble negación incorrecta en inglés)

8.5 "Enough"

Posición: "enough" va después del adjetivo/adverbio y antes del sustantivo.

• "He is ___ to play basketball." → tall enough (adjetivo + enough; no "enough tall")
• "-Do you want to borrow more books? -No, I have ___." → enough (solo; "too enough" no existe)
• "There aren't ___ policemen in our town." → enough (no "too much", que es para incontables; no "too" solo)
• "-Would you like to eat more pie? -No, I've had ___." → more than enough (más que suficiente)

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9. Pronombres

9.1 Pronombres personales: sujeto vs objeto

Regla: tras verbos (call, tell, thank, with...) y preposiciones se usa el pronombre objeto.

• "They didn't call ___, they called ___ by mistake." → me / her (objetos de "call"; no "my" ni "she")
• "I am reading the book to my little sister, I am having a great time with ___." → her (objeto de "with")
• "Why doesn't ___ go out tonight?" → she (sujeto del verbo "go"; no "me", "him", "hers")

9.2 Pronombres posesivos vs adjetivos posesivos

Adjetivo posesivo: acompaña a un sustantivo ("my bottle", "your desk"). Pronombre posesivo: sustituye a sustantivo + adjetivo posesivo (no va con sustantivo).

• "Is this ___ bottle of water?" → your (acompaña a "bottle")
• "The shoes on the floor are ___. ___ are in the closet." → mine / Yours (pronombres solos, sin sustantivo)
• "Which glass is ___?" → yours (pronombre posesivo, no "your")

9.3 Pronombres reflexivos

• "Freddy, you'll have to do your homework ___." → by yourself (2ª singular; "hisself" no existe; "yourselves" sería plural)
• "I complained to the Headmaster ___." → himself (el director, 3ª masc. singular; "herself" sería femenino)

9.4 Pronombres indefinidos: "something", "anything", "nothing", "everything"

• En frases negativas y preguntas se usa "anything" (no "nothing"): doble negación es gramaticalmente incorrecta en inglés.
• "Jack has a bad memory. He can't remember ___." → anything (no "nothing")
• "___ but he can do it." → None (pronombre que se refiere a personas o cosas de un grupo; "nothing" sería para cosas abstractas; "none but" = nadie salvo)
• "- I don't want to eat ___ now." → anything (negativa)

9.5 "One" / "ones" como pronombres

Se usan para evitar repetir un sustantivo ya mencionado.

• "More than these ___, I like that ___." → ones / one (ones reemplaza al sustantivo plural; one al singular)

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10. Artículos

10.1 Artículo indefinido "a" / "an"

• "a" ante consonante o sonido consonántico inicial: a machine, a uniform, a mechanic, a politician
• "an" ante vocal o sonido vocálico inicial: an accountant, an apple, an awful pie, an exception

"uniform" empieza por sonido /j/ (consonante) → a uniform "accountant" empieza por sonido /æ/ (vocal) → an accountant

• "If you want to wear ___ uniform, you can choose to work as ___ mechanic." → a / a (uniform: /j/; mechanic: /m/)
• "My girlfriend is ___ accountant and her parents are ___ dentists." → an / — (accountant: vocal; dentists: plural sin artículo)

10.2 Artículo cero (sin artículo)

• Sustantivos en plural usados en sentido genérico: no llevan artículo.
• Nombres de comidas en sentido general: "What did you have for ___ breakfast?" → — (breakfast sin artículo cuando es la comida en general)
• Profesiones en plural: "her parents are — dentists"

10.3 Artículo definido "the"

• Se usa para referirse a algo ya mencionado o único en el contexto.
• No se usa con medios de transporte en la expresión "by + medio": "by car", "by bus" (sin artículo).

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11. Adjetivos y adverbios

11.1 Adjetivos vs adverbios

Adjetivos: modifican sustantivos o van tras verbos copulativos (be, look, feel, seem, taste, smell, sound). Adverbios: modifican verbos, adjetivos u otros adverbios. Muchos se forman con -ly.

• "The restaurant was ___ decorated, and the food was ___." → nicely / good (decorated es participio = verbo → modificar con adverbio "nicely"; food was → verbo copulativo → adjetivo "good")
• "The team played ___. All the players worked ___." → well / hard (play → adverbio: "well" (no "good"); work → adverbio: "hard" (no "hardly", que significa "apenas"))
• "Robin looks ___. What's the matter with him? ___, he has failed." → sad / Sadly (look → copulativo → adjetivo "sad"; oración aparte → adverbio de manera "sadly")
• "___ badly you are treating your classmates!" → How (badly es adverbio → How)

11.2 Posición del adverbio de frecuencia

Los adverbios de frecuencia (always, never, usually, often, sometimes) van:

• Antes del verbo principal

• Después del auxiliar/modal o del verbo "to be"

• "My administrator ___ missed a deadline." → has never (never entre auxiliar y participio)

• "Maybe you didn't notice before, but ___." → I usually wear glasses. (usually antes del verbo principal; no "I wear always glasses" ni "I never glasses wear")

• "I make chairs and ___ are super cheap!" → they (pronombre sujeto, no "its" ni "it")

11.3 Adjetivos terminados en "-ed" vs "-ing"

• -ing: describe la causa o característica de algo que produce una emoción.

• -ed: describe el estado emocional de una persona o animal.

• "Was she angry? Yes, she was very ___." → annoyed (ella siente la emoción → -ed; "annoying" sería "molesta para otros")

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12. Comparativos y superlativos

12.1 Formación del comparativo

Adjetivos cortos (1 sílaba / 2 sílabas con -y):

• Comparativo: adjetivo + -er + than
• Superlativo: the + adjetivo + -est

Adjetivos largos (2+ sílabas):

• Comparativo: more + adjetivo + than
• Superlativo: the most + adjetivo

Irregulares:

Errores frecuentes:

• "more cleaner" → solo cleaner (no se duplica el comparativo)
• "fastest than" → faster than (comparativo, no superlativo; y siempre "than", no "that")
• "more commoner" → solo more common (adjetivo largo) o simplemente commoner (forma más común para este adjetivo)
• "happyer" → happier (adjetivo en -y: y → i + er)
• "gooder / goodest" → formas irregulares: better / best

Ejemplos del examen:

• "Which human invention was the first object to travel ___ the speed of sound?" → faster than (comparativo de "fast"; no "fastest that")
• "With this soap sheets get ___ with that one." → cleaner than (comparativo regular; no "more cleaner")
• "Sam's name is ___ Antonio's." → more common than (adjetivo de 2 sílabas)
• "Spanish is ___ difficult to learn ___ Chinese." → less / than (comparativo de inferioridad; siempre "than", no "that")

12.2 Doble comparativo (The + comparativo..., the + comparativo)

Expresa relación proporcional entre dos variables.

• "The ___ she knows about it, ___ ." → less / the better (the less..., the better)
• "The ___ it is at night, the ___ he plays his music!" → later / louder (comparativos regulares)
• "The ___ he becomes, the ___ he is." → richer / happier

12.3 "As...as" (comparativo de igualdad)

• Estructura: as + adjetivo/adverbio + as
• "Spanish is ___ difficult to learn ___ Chinese." → la respuesta es "less/than" (inferioridad), pero el patrón as...as se aplica cuando ambas son iguales.

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13. Pronombres relativos y oraciones de relativo

13.1 "Who", "which", "that", "whose", "where"

Diferencia clave: en oraciones de relativo explicativas (entre comas), "that" no puede usarse; se usa "who" o "which".

• "My friend, ___ doesn't have a cell phone, suddenly knocked on the door." → who (persona; coma → relativa explicativa; "that" no válido aquí)
• "The girl ___ bought the cake forgot her cell phone." → who/that (persona; relativa especificativa)
• "Where can I find the lady ___ dog has been rescued?" → whose (posesión: "cuyo perro")
• "Do you know ___ car this is?" → whose (posesión interrogativa)

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14. Conectores y preposiciones

14.1 Conectores de contraste

Errores frecuentes:

• "despite of" → no existe; es solo despite (sin "of")
• "in spite" sin "of" → incorrecto; siempre in spite of

Ejemplos:

• "___ it is not exactly accurate information, we will continue investigating." → Although (+ cláusula)
• "___ each individual is unique, members share common features." → Although (+ cláusula con sujeto y verbo)
• "I've never been to Argentina, ___ having relatives there." → despite (+ gerundio "having"; no "although")

14.2 "Due to" / "owing to" / "because of" / "because"

• "Our flight was cancelled ___ weather conditions." → due to (no "due of", no "owing for")
• "I couldn't come to the party ___ my cat." → because of (sustantivo solo; "because" requiere cláusula con verbo)

14.3 "Instead of"

Expresa sustitución o alternativa. Estructura: instead of + sustantivo/gerundio.

• "___ wine, I prefer water." → Instead of (no "in spite" ni "despite of" ni "owing of")

14.4 Preposiciones de tiempo

• "I'll meet you ___ 8:00 PM, but we can meet ___ night." → at / at (hora exacta; "at night" es expresión fija)
• "at night" (no "in night" ni "on night")

14.5 Preposiciones de lugar y movimiento

• "I love sitting ___ the grass in my garden listening ___ the birds." → on / to (on the grass: superficie; listen to: complemento de régimen verbal)
• "The cat spilt the milk ___ the kitchen floor." → all over (por toda la superficie; no "in spite of", no "despite of")
• "Are you talking ___ me?" → to (talk to someone; no "from", "at", "off")
• "My niece is afraid ___ dogs." → of (afraid of: complemento de régimen)
• "I prefer French ___ maths. You're very good ___ languages." → to / at (prefer X to Y; good at: complemento de régimen)
• "Jane has decided to organize a great party ___ her birthday." → for (for her birthday: finalidad/destinatario temporal)
• "Peter works ___ a doctor in Madrid." → as (función/rol; no "in", "how", "such")

14.6 Medios de transporte

Con medios de transporte se usa by + medio (sin artículo):

• "___ car, of course." → By (by car, by train, by bus, by plane)
• "by + medio de transporte" nunca lleva artículo.

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15. "Do" vs "Make" (colocaciones verbales)

"Do" y "make" son dos de los verbos de colocación más frecuentes en los exámenes. No son intercambiables.

"Make" se usa con:

"Do" se usa con:

Regla nemotécnica:

• "Make" → creación, construcción, producción de algo nuevo.
• "Do" → actividades, tareas, acciones en general.

Ejemplos del examen:

• "It's always a pleasure ___ business with you." → doing (do business; "making" sería incorrecto)
• "Muslims have to ___ a journey to Mecca." → make (make a journey)
• "He ___ a mistake, but now he is just ___ us a favour." → made / doing (made a mistake; doing a favour)
• "The earthquake ___ a lot of damage to the local market." → did (do/did damage; "made" sería incorrecto)
• "We ___ a fire in order to get warm." → made (make a fire)
• "We can't ___ a lot of noise." → make (make noise)
• "Can I ___ you a question?" → make (make a question en algunos dialectos, aunque en inglés estándar "ask a question" es más común; la opción del examen es "make")
• "Before ___ the housework, he has to ___ his homework." → doing / do (do the housework; do homework)
• "I have to ___ the housework before leaving." → do
• "I don't like to ___ the bed." → make (make the bed)
• "He's always ___ nice things for his girlfriend." → doing (do nice things)
• "We have to start ___ progress." → making (make progress)
• "He's going to ___ an attempt." → make (make an attempt)
• "Please, ___ an exception and let me in." → make (make an exception)
• "The meeting made me ___ my flight." → made (make someone do something; causativo)
• "This song ___ me think of my boyfriend." → makes (3ª sg; make someone do)
• "His mother ___ all her children wash their face." → made (causativo: made + objeto + infinitivo sin "to")
• "Please, ___ us a good time and take us out." → relacionado con "do" + favour / good things

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16. Gerundio vs infinitivo tras verbos y expresiones

16.1 Verbos que van seguidos de gerundio (-ing)

• enjoy, love (en algunos contextos), like (en algunos contextos), feel like, mind, avoid, stop, keep, finish, start

• "She enjoys ___, I don't share this with him." → climbing (enjoy + gerundio)

• "Mark, do you feel like ___ tomorrow?" → going out (feel like + gerundio)

• "I saw the killer ___ from the police." → running away (see + objeto + gerundio; percepción)

16.2 Verbos que van seguidos de infinitivo con "to"

• want, decide, plan, hope, need, afford, agree, promise, manage, try, learn

• "John and Mary are going to join the gym ___ fit for their wedding." → in order to get (propósito: in order to + infinitivo; no "in order get")

• "We have to start ___ progress or the boss will fire us." → making (start puede ir con gerundio o infinitivo; aquí la opción correcta del examen es el gerundio)

16.3 Expresiones con "to" seguidas de gerundio

"Look forward to" + gerundio (no infinitivo: la "to" aquí es preposición). "Get used to" + gerundio. "In order to" + infinitivo (aquí "to" sí es partícula de infinitivo).

• "My daughter has always liked ___ to the mountain." → being taken (like + gerundio en este contexto; "being taken" = le gusta que la lleven; pasiva con gerundio)

16.4 Verbos de percepción y causativos + infinitivo sin "to"

• see, hear, watch, make, let, have + objeto + infinitivo base (sin "to")
• "What ___ him change his mind?" → made (make + objeto + infinitivo; "to do" sería incorrecto aquí porque "what" es el sujeto)

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17. Acuerdo (agreement) y respuestas cortas con "so" y "neither/nor"

Las respuestas cortas de acuerdo o desacuerdo con lo que dice otro hablante siguen patrones fijos.

Acuerdo con afirmativa: "So + auxiliar/modal + sujeto"

Indica que lo mismo es verdad para el hablante.

• "I like to climb mountains, and ___." → so does he (like → does en 3ª sg)
• "My sister felt very ill after eating fish and ___." → so did I (felt → did, Past Simple)
• "- My niece went to Malta last year. - ___" → So did mine (went → did)
• "-My sister lived in Spain three years ago. -___" → So did Alfred. (lived → did, no "So does")
• "- I find it very hard to understand the teacher. - ___." → So do I. (find → do)
• "I prefer watermelon to apple. ___." → Me too (también válido informalmente; la respuesta formal sería "So do I")

Acuerdo con negativa: "Neither/Nor + auxiliar/modal + sujeto"

Indica que lo negativo también es verdad para el hablante. El auxiliar es positivo (porque "neither/nor" ya porta la negación).

• "She doesn't like his manners. ___." → Neither do I. (doesn't → do)
• "I don't think I'm going to the gym. ___." → Neither do I. (don't → do)
• "- I'm really sorry, but I can't help him. - ___." → Neither can I. (can't → can)
• "Your father isn't very tall. ___." → Neither am I. (isn't → am; verbo "to be")
• "- I can't go alone. - ___." → Nor can I. (equivalente a Neither can I)
• "- We can't afford a car! - ___ we!" → Nor can (can't → can)
• "- I don't know how to crack the code. - ___." → A y B son correctas (tanto "Nor do I" como "Neither do I" son correctas)
• "- I don't think I'm going to the gym. - ___." → Neither do I.

Clave: "Neither" y "Nor" son intercambiables. El auxiliar siempre corresponde al de la frase original. Nunca se usan formas como "Neither don't I" (doble negación) ni "Neither me" (sin auxiliar).

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18. Pronombres demostrativos: "this", "that", "these", "those"

• "___ is gonna be your desk." → This (singular, cercano, neutro de presentación)
• "What do you think is ___ light you see in the distance?" → that (singular, lejos)
• "___ generator doesn't have enough power." → That (singular, el señalado en contexto)
• "He had to choose between the two desserts, but both ___ so good." → were (sujeto "both" → plural → were)

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19. Posesivo sajón (Genitive 's)

El posesivo sajón en inglés se forma añadiendo 's al poseedor:

• Singular: the shopkeeper's weights

• Plural con -s: the students' books

• Plural irregular: the children's toys

• "___ were tricked into deceiving his customers." → The shopkeeper's weights (no "The weights´ shopkeeper" ni "The shopkeeper of the weights")

• "Michael ___ in 1861." → took over his father's business (his = pronombre posesivo masculino; "hin" y "he" no son posesivos)

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20. Plurales irregulares

La regla general para plurales es añadir -s o -es. Pero hay excepciones:

• "The plural of ___ is ___. (Tick the WRONG option)." → country/countrys es la opción incorrecta (la forma correcta es countries; la -y tras consonante cambia a -ies).

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21. Intensificadores: "so" / "such" / "too" / "enough"

"So" vs "such"

• "My suitcase was ___ heavy that I couldn't carry it." → so (solo adjetivo "heavy", sin sustantivo)
• "This is ___ beautiful portrait that I'm sorry." → such a (sustantivo contable singular "portrait" → such a)
• "We're ___ pleased with these new pans that we're going to buy some more." → so (adjetivo solo)
• "There was ___ bad weather that we had to stay home." → such (weather es incontable → such sin artículo)
• "Mark said that he has never tasted ___ good food." → such (food incontable → such, sin artículo)
• "We spent the weekend in ___ lovely farm!" → such a (farm: contable singular)
• "They were ___ hungry that they ate the whole broccoli." → so (adjetivo solo)
• "You shouldn't go with ___ bad atmosphere." → such a (atmosphere: contable singular)
• "She had ___ setbacks and received ___ bad news." → so many / such (setbacks: contable plural → so many; news: incontable → such)
• "He swims ___ quickly!" → so (adverbio, sin sustantivo)
• "It took ___ time to do." → so much (time incontable + so)

Resumen:

• "so" + adjetivo/adverbio (sin sustantivo)
• "such (a/an)" + (adjetivo) + sustantivo

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22. Preposiciones de propósito y finalidad

• in order to + infinitivo (propósito formal)

• so as to + infinitivo (formal)

• for + sustantivo o gerundio (finalidad)

• to + infinitivo (propósito simple)

• "John and Mary are going to join the gym ___ fit for their wedding." → in order to get

• "Jane has decided to organize a great party ___ her birthday." → for (for her birthday: razón/destinatario temporal, no "in order to" que requeriría infinitivo)

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23. Expresiones idiomáticas frecuentes en el examen

"As soon as"

• "He found out that something was wrong ___ he arrived at the scene." → as soon as (no "as soon for", no "soon as")

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24. "There is / There are" y sus tiempos

La estructura "there + be" expresa existencia. "Be" se conjuga en el tiempo necesario y concuerda con el sujeto real.

• "___ some problems with the engine." → There might be (modal + be; no "might are")
• "___ a high risk of contagion." → There will be (futuro; no "will being", "will been")
• "___ a few people in class today." → There have been (Present Perfect plural: "a few people" → have)
• "___ many guests at your niece's birthday party?" → Will there be (inversión en pregunta futura)
• "_____ some problems." → There might be

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25. Adverbios de posición en la oración

"Still", "yet", "already", "ever", "never":

• "Did you send the report? No, I'm ___ finishing it." → still (todavía en proceso)
• "They haven't visited your sister ___." → yet (negativa + final)
• "My administrator ___ missed a deadline." → has never (never entre auxiliar y participio)

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26. Everywhere / Everybody / Anywhere / Nobody

• "___ we check, they do it like you say. Our way is unique. ___ can find our exact product in any shop." → Everywhere / Anybody (en todas partes inspeccionamos; nadie = "Nobody" o cualquiera... la clave: segunda frase niega que se encuentre en tiendas normales → Anywhere no encaja; "Anybody" con negación implícita o en sentido de "nadie puede" — la respuesta del examen es Everywhere / Anybody).

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27. Adverbios "both", "either", "neither" con pronombres

• Both va inmediatamente antes del verbo principal o después del auxiliar: "They were both surprised."
• "f53509b2: ___ surprised after reading their names on the list." → They were both (no "Both were they")

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Fin del bloque de temario — Parte 3

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Bloque 4

Gramática inglesa: temario exhaustivo (Parte 4)

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1. Condicionales

Las oraciones condicionales (conditional sentences) expresan una condición y su consecuencia. El examen evalúa los tres tipos principales.

1.1 Condicional tipo 1 (First Conditional): situaciones reales o probables

Expresa situaciones posibles en el presente o futuro. La condición es real y el hablante cree que puede cumplirse.

Estructura: If + Present Simple, will + infinitivo

• If you don't take notes, you will forget everything.
• You will see the Big Ben if you come to London.
• If the baby plays with the computer, he will break it.
• Unless you take notes, you will forget everything. (unless = if not; mantiene el mismo esquema)

Atención: willn't no existe; la negación correcta es won't.

1.2 Condicional tipo 2 (Second Conditional): situaciones hipotéticas o irreales en el presente

Expresa situaciones que el hablante considera poco probables, imaginarias o contrarias a la realidad presente.

Estructura: If + Past Simple, would + infinitivo

• What would you do if you were your own boss?
• What would you do if you were in my shoes?
• Will you go to a different show if you can't get tickets? (tipo 1, no tipo 2)

Nota sobre "were": en el condicional tipo 2, el verbo to be adopta were para todas las personas, incluso con I, he, she o it (If I were you..., If she were here...). Esta forma se llama subjuntivo y es la única correcta en registro formal; was se acepta en registro informal pero no en exámenes.

1.3 Condicional tipo 3 (Third Conditional): situaciones hipotéticas en el pasado

Expresa situaciones que no ocurrieron (contradicen la realidad pasada). Sirve para especular sobre el pasado.

Estructura: If + Past Perfect, would have + participio pasado

• If Dr Bannister hadn't broken the record that day, it would soon have been broken by someone else.
• Even if he had asked them, they wouldn't have agreed to come.

Error frecuente: usar didn't break o wasn't broken en la cláusula if del tipo 3. Solo had + participio es correcto.

1.4 Resumen comparativo de los tres tipos

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2. Present Simple y Present Continuous

2.1 Present Simple: acciones habituales y hechos permanentes

Se usa para rutinas, hábitos, verdades generales y estados. Los marcadores temporales típicos son: always, often, usually, every day, never, sometimes.

Formación (3ª persona singular): verbo + -s (o -es con do, go, have, teach...)

• Mary has a shower every night.
• She eats fruit every day.
• The teacher often speaks in English.
• Mary likes pop music.

Verbos copulativos (linking verbs): los verbos de estado como taste, smell, look, sound, feel van en Present Simple, no en Continuous.

• This soup tastes strange. (nunca is tasting)

2.2 Present Continuous: acciones en curso en el momento del habla

Se usa para acciones que ocurren ahora mismo o durante un período limitado. Marcadores: right now, at the moment, today, currently.

Formación: am / is / are + verbo + -ing

• Today nobody is listening to her.
• Right now I'm drinking beer with my friends.
• What are you going to drink today?

2.3 Contraste Present Simple / Present Continuous

Pregunta sobre el futuro próximo con "are you coming": el Present Continuous también expresa planes futuros ya decididos.

• "Right now I'm drinking beer. What time are you coming?" (plan futuro ya acordado)

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3. Past Simple y Past Continuous

3.1 Past Simple: acciones completadas en el pasado

Para acciones que ocurrieron y finalizaron en un momento determinado del pasado. Marcadores: yesterday, last week, in 2019, ago, when I arrived.

Formación: verbo regular + -ed; verbos irregulares tienen forma propia.

• When did they win the tournament? (verbo irregular win → won)
• Were those boys who broke the window pane? (break → broke)

Verbos irregulares clave en este bloque:

Atención: braken y brakened no existen. El pasado de break es broke y el participio es broken.

3.2 Past Continuous: acción en desarrollo en un momento del pasado

Describe una acción que estaba en curso en un momento concreto del pasado o cuando otra acción la interrumpió.

Formación: was / were + verbo + -ing

• While the plumber was fixing the tap, my mom was at the bank.
• When I arrived at class, the students were studying all the sentences.

Regla de concordancia: con sujeto plural se usa were, con singular was. El error "was studying" con sujeto plural (the students) es incorrecto.

3.3 Past Simple vs Past Continuous: esquema habitual

La combinación más frecuente es: Past Continuous (acción en desarrollo) + Past Simple (acción que interrumpe).

• While she was sleeping (Past Continuous), the phone rang (Past Simple).

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4. Present Perfect

El Present Perfect conecta el pasado con el presente: una acción pasada tiene relevancia o consecuencias ahora.

Formación: have / has + participio pasado

4.1 Marcadores temporales del Present Perfect

• Has she begun her new job yet? / She hasn't finished yet.
• I've just seen it.
• Have you ever flown in a hot air balloon?
• Tommy has had a cold for two weeks.
• Have you been lying on your bed all day? (for two hours, no since two hours)

Atención a yet vs already:

• yet va siempre al final en interrogativas y negativas.
• already va entre el auxiliar y el participio en afirmativas.
• The rocket has already been launched. (correcto)
• Has she begun her new job yet? (correcto)

4.2 For vs Since

• I have been here for two hours. (no since two hours)
• They haven't finished their holiday yet; they will stay three days more. (duración futura: for three days)

4.3 Present Perfect Continuo

Para acciones que comenzaron en el pasado y continúan o acaban de terminar.

Formación: have / has + been + verbo-ing

• Have you been lying on your bed all day?
• I have been waiting for a long time.

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5. Past Perfect

El Past Perfect expresa una acción completada antes de otro momento o acción pasada. Es el "pasado del pasado".

Formación: had + participio pasado

• If Dr Bannister hadn't broken the record, it would have been broken.
• When she arrived, he had already left.

Uso clave en reported speech: en el discurso indirecto, los tiempos pasados retroceden un nivel (ver sección 7).

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6. Voz Pasiva (Passive Voice)

Cuando el foco está en la acción o en el receptor, no en el agente.

Formación: am / is / are / was / were / has been / have been + participio pasado

• Has she been bitten by a rattlesnake? (Present Perfect Pasiva)
• The rocket has already been launched. (Present Perfect Pasiva, afirmativa)
• The payments will be done by the accountant. (by introduce el agente en pasiva)

Preposición del agente: siempre by, nunca for ni at cuando se introduce el agente de una acción pasiva.

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7. Estilo Indirecto (Reported Speech)

El estilo indirecto transmite lo que alguien dijo sin reproducirlo palabra por palabra. Requiere tres ajustes sistemáticos: tiempo verbal, pronombres y expresiones de tiempo.

7.1 Retroceso temporal (backshift)

• "I will finish the project tomorrow" → She said she would finish the project the next day.
• "I don't feel better now" → She said she didn't feel better in that moment.
• "I had never been here before" → He said he had never been there before.
• "I've never met your brother" → She said she had never met my brother.
• "I don't understand why you are late today" → She told him she didn't understand why he was late that day.

Atención: Past Simple retrocede a Past Perfect solo si se necesita distinguirlo de otro pasado. En muchos casos se mantiene en Past Simple, pero el examen generalmente espera el retroceso a Past Perfect.

7.2 Cambio de expresiones temporales

• "I'll lend you my car tomorrow" → He said he would lend me his car the next day.
• "I need to text my mum in one hour" → She said she needed to text her mum one hour later.

7.3 Cambio de pronombres

Los pronombres se ajustan según la perspectiva del narrador.

• "I've never met your brother" → She said she had never met my brother. (primera persona → tercera; your → my desde la perspectiva del oyente-narrador)
• "Buy me a drink" → He asked her to buy him a drink. (me → him)

7.4 Reported Speech en interrogativas

Las preguntas indirectas pierden la inversión sujeto-auxiliar y se convierten en subordinadas con orden declarativo.

Preguntas de sí/no (yes/no questions): se introduce con if o whether.

• "Did you find the keys yesterday?" → He asked me if I had found the keys the day before.

Preguntas con pronombre interrogativo (wh- questions): se mantiene el pronombre interrogativo como conector.

• "Where have you spent all your money?" → She asked him where he had spent all his money.

Errores frecuentes:

• Mantener la inversión: She asked him where had he spent... (incorrecto)
• Usar have en lugar de had: She asked him where he has spent... (incorrecto)

7.5 Reported Speech en imperativos

Las órdenes y peticiones se convierten con told/asked + objeto + to + infinitivo (afirmativas) o told/asked + objeto + not to + infinitivo (negativas).

• "Buy me a drink, please" → David asked her to buy him a drink.
• "Keep my secret" → She told us to keep her secret.
• "I'll lend you my car tomorrow" (declarativa, no imperativa) → no usa to; usa would.

Distinciones clave:

• told se usa con oraciones declarativas e imperativas.
• asked se usa con peticiones e interrogativas.
• "said to" es posible (less common) pero "told" NO lleva "to" antes del objeto indirecto: She told him (correcto), She said to him that (aceptable pero más raro en exámenes).

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8. Preguntas Indirectas (Indirect / Embedded Questions)

Cuando una pregunta directa se integra dentro de otra oración (subordinada), pierde la inversión auxiliar-sujeto y adopta el orden declarativo.

Estructura: expresión introductoria + pronombre interrogativo / if + sujeto + verbo

Regla crítica: en la pregunta indirecta, el verbo NO se invierte.

• Correcto: Do you know where she met her brother?
• Incorrecto: Do you know where did she meet her brother?

Expresiones introductoras habituales: I wonder, Do you know, Can you tell me, Do you happen to know, I'd like to know...

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9. Pronombres Interrogativos (Wh- words)

Who vs Whom:

• Who pregunta por el sujeto: Who is reading in the library? → Sue is.
• Whom pregunta por el objeto (uso formal): Whom did you see? → pero en inglés cotidiano se usa who en ambos casos.

Whose = de quién (posesión):

• Whose bicycle is that? → It's my brother's.
• Whose tools are those? (sobre objetos que se ven allí lejos)

Why como relativo: en oraciones de relativo explicando una razón, why funciona como pronombre relativo.

• Can you tell me the reason why you are so annoyed?
• That's the reason why. (coloquial: That's why.)

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10. Pronombres Relativos

Los pronombres relativos introducen una oración subordinada de relativo que añade información sobre el antecedente (la palabra a la que se refieren).

• This is the woman who taught me how to drive. (sujeto, persona → who)
• The person who wrote that speech is a genius. (sujeto, persona → who)
• I live in a house in Norwich, which is in East England. (cosa → which, cláusula no especificativa con coma)
• We travelled by train, which is much cheaper than by plane. (cosa → which)
• Can you tell me the reason why you are so annoyed? (razón → why)

Cláusulas especificativas vs no especificativas:

• Especificativa (sin comas): identifica al antecedente; admite who, which, that.
  • The person who wrote that speech is a genius.
• No especificativa (con comas): añade información extra, no identifica; solo admite who o which, nunca that.
  • I live in a house in Norwich, which is in East England.

Error frecuente: usar where para cosas que no son lugares (the book where I read) o whom para sujeto (the woman whom taught me).

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11. Question Tags (Coletillas interrogativas)

Las question tags son pequeñas preguntas añadidas al final de una afirmación para pedir confirmación. Funcionan por inversión y contraste.

Regla principal: si la oración principal es afirmativa, la coletilla es negativa, y viceversa.

Regla del auxiliar: la coletilla usa el mismo auxiliar que la oración principal (o do/does/did si no hay auxiliar).

• They haven't met your husband, have they? (Present Perfect negativo → coletilla afirmativa con have)
• Julie's chosen the best option, hasn't she? (Present Perfect afirmativo → coletilla negativa con has)

Atención: chosen't no existe. La coletilla negativa de has es hasn't.

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12. Acuerdo y Desacuerdo: So / Neither / Nor

Para expresar acuerdo con lo que alguien ha dicho, se usan estructuras con inversión.

12.1 Acuerdo con oraciones afirmativas: So + auxiliar + sujeto

• "I brought a bunch of flowers to my mom." → "So did I." (pasado simple → did)
• "Marisa loves eating pasta." → "So do I." (presente simple → do)
• "We'll probably go next Sunday." → "So will I." (futuro → will)
• "I'm a stranger here." → "So am I." (verbo to be → am)

Regla: el auxiliar se selecciona según el tiempo de la oración original.

12.2 Acuerdo con oraciones negativas: Neither / Nor + auxiliar + sujeto

• "I don't like the look of that place." → "Neither do I."
• "I can't remember where they hid the treasure." → "Nor can I."
• "I would never go to that country alone." → "Neither would I."

Formas equivalentes: Neither do I = Nor do I (ambas correctas).

Errores frecuentes:

• Neither I don't → la estructura ya es negativa; no se añade otro negativo.
• So do I para responder a una afirmación en pasado → debe ser So did I.
• Neither did I para responder a negación en presente → debe ser Neither do I.

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13. Both, Either y Neither

Estos determinantes/pronombres se refieren a dos elementos.

13.1 Both

• Both children are playing in the park. (determinante antes de sustantivo, sin of)
• The same actor appears in both films. (determinante)
• We have both been to Italy. (adverbio de foco, entre auxiliar y verbo principal)
• Both va antes del sustantivo directamente o seguido de of + the + sustantivo: both (of the) children.

Posición de both como adverbio de foco: va después del auxiliar y antes del verbo principal.

• We have both been to Italy. (correcto)
• Both we have been to Italy. (incorrecto)

13.2 Neither...nor (estructura correlativa)

• He neither knows nor cares. (ni sabe ni le importa)

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14. Cuantificadores (Quantifiers)

Los cuantificadores expresan cantidad. La elección depende de si el sustantivo es contable o incontable y de si la oración es afirmativa, negativa o interrogativa.

14.1 Tabla de cuantificadores

Ejemplos:

• I can't find any books about dinosaurs. (negativa + contable → any)
• Do you have any jokes to tell us? (interrogativa + contable → any)
• Yes, I have some. (afirmativa → some)
• We had a lot of friends but little money. (amigos: contable → a lot of; dinero: incontable negativo → little)
• I've got a few cakes to give away. (contable, cantidad pequeña positiva → a few)
• We only have a little time before the bus leaves. (incontable, cantidad pequeña positiva → a little)
• Would you like some soup? (oferta → some) → Yes, a little please. (incontable → a little)
• There are lots of trucks in this rest area. (lots of, no a lots of ni lot of)

14.2 Too much / Too many / Enough

• Too much + incontable: There is too much food. (no too many food, no too muchs)
• Too many + contable plural: There are too many people.
• A lot como predicado (sin sustantivo): Is that house expensive? A lot. (respuesta sola)

14.3 None / Nothing / Nowhere / Nobody / Anything

Pronombres negativos indefinidos (ver sección 16).

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15. So y Such

Ambos expresan intensidad, pero se construyen de forma diferente.

15.1 So + adjetivo o adverbio (sin sustantivo)

• You are so lucky to have such amazing friends!
• He has so much money that he could buy anything.
• She was so beautiful.

15.2 Such + (a/an) + (adjetivo) + sustantivo

• She's such a bookworm! (sustantivo singular contable: a bookworm → such a)
• Such nice earrings! (sustantivo plural: sin artículo → such)
• Such beautiful hair! (sustantivo incontable: sin artículo → such)
• I have such a lot of problems that I am losing hope. (such a lot of es una locución fija)

15.3 So much / So many

Con much y many se usa so (no such):

• He has so much money.
• She asked so many questions.

15.4 Tabla resumen So / Such

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16. Pronombres Indefinidos: Some-, Any-, No-, Every-

Se forman con los prefijos some-, any-, no-, every- combinados con -body/-one (personas), -thing (cosas) y -where (lugares).

16.1 Reglas de uso

• Some- en oraciones afirmativas y en ofertas/peticiones.
  • Somebody told me to come here.
• Any- en oraciones negativas e interrogativas; también en afirmativas con sentido de "cualquiera" (It's an easy job; anybody would do it).
  • I can't find anything.
  • He could be anywhere now.
  • Anybody would do it. (cualquiera, sin restricción)
• No- en oraciones afirmativas con significado negativo (no se combina con otra negación).
  • Nothing is left here for you.
  • Nobody knows.
• Every- en oraciones afirmativas con sentido de totalidad.

16.2 Respuestas de cantidad con none

• How much money did you take? None. (ninguno, como respuesta sola → none)
• None no lleva -thing, -body, -where; es pronombre autónomo para responder sobre cantidad.

16.3 Something / Anything en preguntas

• What's inside your trunk? → respuesta afirmativa sobre contenido real: Anything, it's a mess. (equivale a "todo tipo de cosas, un desastre"). Aunque anything parece extraño en afirmativa, aquí tiene valor enfático-coloquial de "de todo".
• What's inside your trunk? → si está vacío: Nothing, it's empty.

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17. Pronombres Personales, Posesivos y Demostrativos

17.1 Pronombres personales (sujeto y objeto)

• My brother has a new job, but he doesn't like it very much. (sujeto he, objeto it)
• Can you give me one euro? (objeto indirecto → me)

17.2 Adjetivos posesivos y pronombres posesivos

• Is that your bag? No, mine is on the table. (adjetivo your + pronombre mine)
• That man is a friend of my father. (adjetivo posesivo, no "a father of mine" ni "yours father")

Construcción "a friend of mine": se usa of + pronombre posesivo para expresar que alguien es uno entre varios.

• a friend of mine (uno de mis amigos)
• a friend of my father (un amigo de mi padre, con nombre/sustantivo → sin pronombre posesivo)

17.3 Pronombres demostrativos

• I'm having a hard time doing this stuff. (singular, cercano → this)
• If any of those things out there come in, we're finished. (lejanos, plural → those)
• These ones are my favourite! (plural → these ones; nunca "this ones" ni "these one")
• I can't stand that silly face he puts on. (singular, referencia específica → that)

Concordancia: el demostrativo debe concordar en número con el sustantivo.

• This stuff (incontable, singular → this)
• Those things (plural → those)

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18. Enough y Too

18.1 Enough

Enough + sustantivo (suficiente cantidad): enough time, enough money. Adjetivo + enough (suficientemente): el adjetivo o adverbio va antes de enough.

• Is that big enough for us? (adjetivo before enough)
• He doesn't drive fast enough to win the race. (adverbio + enough)
• He doesn't drive fast enough. (no "enough fast")

Too + adjetivo / adverbio (demasiado):

• You are too young to understand it.
• This suitcase is too heavy!

Estructura con infinitivo de propósito:

• adj/adv + enough + to + infinitivo → fast enough to win
• too + adj/adv + to + infinitivo → too young to understand

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19. Verbos Modales (Modal Verbs)

Los modales expresan posibilidad, permiso, obligación, consejo o capacidad. Siempre van seguidos de infinitivo sin to (excepción: ought to lleva to).

19.1 Tabla de modales principales

19.2 Mustn't vs Needn't

• Mustn't: prohibición (no se debe hacer bajo ningún concepto).
  • This antiquity is very expensive; the Government mustn't lose it.
• Needn't: no es necesario (no hay obligación, pero no está prohibido).
  • We needn't do the washing up today; tomorrow is a holiday.

Errores frecuentes:

• mustn't to → los modales no llevan to (excepto ought to).
• should go on diet → correcto es should go on a diet.
• ought to going → ought to + infinitivo sin -ing.

19.3 Should have + participio (pasado modal)

Para criticar o lamentar algo que no se hizo en el pasado:

• I should have let you know about it. (debería haberte avisado, pero no lo hice)

Formas incorrectas: may had letted, ought have let, might have letted → el participio de let es invariable: let (no letted).

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20. Make vs Do

Son los dos verbos que expresan "hacer" en inglés, pero no son intercambiables.

20.1 Make: producir, crear, fabricar algo

Se usa cuando hay un resultado tangible o cuando se crea algo nuevo.

Expresiones fijas con Make:

20.2 Do: realizar una actividad, tarea o trabajo

Se usa para actividades, trabajo y expresiones genéricas sin resultado material.

Expresiones fijas con Do:

• Why are they doing the experiment so late? (actividad → do)
• Do the job properly and you won't have any problems. (actividad → do el trabajo; resultado → have problemas, nunca do)
• Who has made such a huge breakfast? (resultado → make)

20.3 Regla práctica

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21. Exclamaciones (Exclamatory Sentences)

Las exclamaciones con What y How tienen estructuras distintas.

21.1 What + (a/an) + sustantivo (± adjetivo)

• What + a/an con sustantivo contable singular: What a wonderful day!

• What (sin artículo) con sustantivo plural o incontable: What strange ingredients!

• What a wonderful day today! (sustantivo singular contable → What a)

• What strange ingredients! (sustantivo plural → What, sin artículo)

21.2 How + adjetivo o adverbio (sin sustantivo)

• How quickly he swims!
• How heavy this dictionary is!
• How slowly the snail crawls!

Regla: si hay un sustantivo en la exclamación → What (a/an). Si hay solo un adjetivo o adverbio → How.

21.3 Tabla de contraste

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22. Preposiciones de Tiempo

• The party is on Saturday. (on + día de la semana)
• They will stay for three days more. (for + duración medida)
• She went to Spain during the summer. (during + período sin número)

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23. Preposiciones de Lugar y Movimiento

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24. Preposiciones con Verbos de Propósito y Causa

Atención a despite vs although:

• Despite / In spite of van seguidos de sustantivo o gerundio, nunca de una oración completa con verbo conjugado.
  • Despite the rain (correcto) / Despite it was raining (incorrecto)
• Although / Even though van seguidos de oración completa.
  • Although it was raining (correcto)

Doble corrección: "He didn't take his umbrella although/even though it was raining" → ambas formas (although y even though) son correctas (la opción del examen era "C and A are correct").

Despite vs Despite of: despite no lleva of. Despite of es incorrecto.

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25. Conectores de Propósito con Infinitivo

• In order to + infinitivo: propósito formal.
  • In order to save the planet, we have to take action.
  • In order save (falta to) es incorrecto.
• To + infinitivo: propósito habitual en inglés cotidiano.
  • She went to the shop to buy bread.

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26. Comparativos y Superlativos

26.1 Comparativo de superioridad

• Adjetivos cortos (1 sílaba o 2 con -y): adjetivo + -er + than
  • Thomas is healthier than he used to be.
  • This is much cheaper than flying.
• Adjetivos largos: more + adjetivo + than
  • This is more interesting than that.

Errores frecuentes:

• healthier that → siempre than (no that).
• more health than → el adjetivo correcto es healthy → healthier than.

26.2 Doble comparativo: expresar cambio progresivo

Para expresar que algo cambia progresivamente, se repite el comparativo.

Estructura: comparativo + and + comparativo

• The screams of the guards were getting fainter and fainter. (cada vez más tenues)
• It's getting hotter and hotter. (cada vez más caluroso)

Concordancia: con sujeto plural (the screams) → were (no was).

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27. Adverbios: Formación y Adjetivos Irregulares

27.1 Formación de adverbios

La mayoría de los adverbios de modo se forman añadiendo -ly al adjetivo:

• careful → carefully
• careless → carelessly
• easy → easily
• fluent → fluently

Excepción importante: fast y hard son a la vez adjetivo y adverbio. NO se les añade -ly.

• Julia drove fast and carelessly. (fastly no existe)
• She works hard. (hardly existe pero significa "apenas", no "con esfuerzo")

27.2 Adverbio vs Adjetivo después de "want"

El verbo want seguido de objeto + infinitivo requiere el objeto en caso acusativo, y el complemento del infinitivo lleva adjetivo (no adverbio) si modifica al objeto.

• She wants them to work hard. (adverbio hard modifica work, no a them; el objeto them, no they)
• She wants they to work hard. (incorrecto: they es sujeto, no objeto)
• She wants them to work hardly. (incorrecto: hardly = apenas)

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28. Adjetivos de Estado (Linking Verbs / Stative Verbs)

Ciertos verbos copulativos (de percepción o estado) funcionan como to be y van seguidos de adjetivo, no de adverbio.

Verbos copulativos comunes: look, seem, appear, feel, taste, smell, sound, become, get.

• This soup tastes strange. (no strangely)
• You look tired. (no tiredly)

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29. Verbos con Gerundio o Infinitivo

Algunos verbos solo admiten gerundio (-ing) como complemento; otros solo admiten infinitivo (to + inf.); algunos admiten ambos con cambio de significado.

29.1 Verbos seguidos de gerundio

• avoid + -ing: The suspect avoided answering questions.
• be fond of + -ing: My father is very fond of riding.
• feel like + -ing: Do you feel like going for a walk?
• mean + -ing (= significar): This policy means saving a lot of money.

29.2 Verbos seguidos de infinitivo

• refuse + to inf.: He refused to make a statement.
• want + to inf.: She wants to leave.
• need + to inf.: I need to sell my car.

29.3 Verbos seguidos de objeto + infinitivo sin to (bare infinitive)

Los verbos de percepción (see, watch, hear, feel) y causativos (let, make) van seguidos de objeto + infinitivo sin to (o gerundio con matiz distinto).

• We watched them running back and forth. (gerundio: acción en progreso)
• We watched them run. (infinitivo sin to: acción completa)

Atención: to ran y to running son incorrectos. Tras verbos de percepción, el infinitivo va sin to.

29.4 Avoid vs Refuse

• avoid + -ing (no to inf.): The suspect avoided answering questions.
• refuse + to inf. (no -ing): He refused to make a statement.

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30. Used to

Used to + infinitivo expresa un hábito o estado pasado que ya no ocurre o existe.

• Fred used to go to the pub every now and again, but now the situation has changed.

Formas:

Errores frecuentes:

• use to go en afirmativa → used to go.
• used to gone → el verbo va en infinitivo, no en participio.
• use to go → en afirmativa siempre used (con -d).

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31. Phrasal Verbs Clave

Un phrasal verb combina un verbo con una preposición o adverbio que cambia su significado.

Atención a look out vs look for:

• Look out! = ¡Cuidado! (advertencia de peligro inmediato)
• Look for = buscar algo

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32. Artículos (a / an / the / zero article)

32.1 A vs An

• a antes de sonido consonántico: a university, a secondary education teacher, a car.

• an antes de sonido vocálico: an exception, an offer, an hour.

• Is she a secondary education teacher? No, she's a university professor. (ambas llevan a porque secondary empieza por consonante y university empieza por sonido /j/)

32.2 Zero article (sin artículo)

Con sustantivos en plural o incontables en sentido general, y con nombres propios.

• I love reading. (actividad en general → sin artículo)

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33. Pronombres Recíprocos y Posesión Enfática

33.1 Each other

Expresa reciprocidad entre dos (o más) personas.

• The dog looked at the cat and the cat looked at the dog. → The animals looked at each other. (no each another, each others)

Forma fija: each other (invariable, sin pluralización).

33.2 Own (propio)

Se usa para reforzar la posesión: adjective posesivo + own + sustantivo.

• Little Henry wants his own dog. (su propio perro)
• What would you do if you were your own boss?

Posición: siempre entre el posesivo y el sustantivo (his own dog, no dog owns ni own's dog).

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34. Futuro: Will vs Going to vs Present Continuous

• I can't find any cheese. Okay, I will buy some. (decisión espontánea → will)
• My sisters are going to study astronomy. (intención/plan → going to)
• What are you going to drink today? (elección próxima, acción planificada → going to)

Errores frecuentes:

• am going buy → falta to: am going to buy.
• will bought → will + infinitivo, no participio: will buy.

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35. Vocabulario y Colocaciones (Collocations)

35.1 Verbos de transporte

• She learnt to ride a bike when she was five. (bicicleta → ride, no drive)

35.2 Adjetivos y adverbios (pares frecuentes)

• Maika can speak French fluently and easily. (fluidity no es adverbio correcto; easyly no existe)

35.3 Plural irregular de book

• book → books (no bookes, bokes, beek)

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36. Adverbios de Frecuencia: Posición en la Oración

Los adverbios de frecuencia (always, usually, often, sometimes, never, rarely) se colocan:

• Antes del verbo principal (no auxiliar): She usually has a shower.

• Después del auxiliar o verbo to be: He is always late.

• Mary usually has a shower every night. (correcto)

• haves usually → el verbo have con tercera persona del singular es has, no haves.

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37. There is / There are

La estructura there is/are sirve para indicar existencia.

• There is + singular o incontable: There is too much food.

• There are + plural: Are there many people in your workplace?

• Are there many people in your workplace? (plural → are there, no is there)

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38. Pronombres Reflexivos e Intensivos (revisión)

Se usan cuando el sujeto y el objeto son la misma persona, o para dar énfasis.

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39. Extremely / Smart: Adverbios de Intensidad con Adjetivos

Los adverbios de grado modifican adjetivos y van antes de ellos.

• Kevin is extremely clever, a really smart guy. (extremely modifica clever; smart es adjetivo predicativo)
• extremeless y extremeness no son palabras.
• smartly sería adverbio (modifica un verbo), no adjetivo.

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40. Contracciones y Ortografía Básica

• it's = it is / it has (contracción): It's a wonderful day.

• its = adjetivo posesivo (sin apóstrofo): The dog wagged its tail.

• they're = they are; their = posesivo; there = lugar.

• It's a wonderful day today. (contracción de it is → it's)

• its en lugar de it's es un error ortográfico frecuente.

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41. Verb + Object + Infinitive: Estructura "want/ask/tell + obj + to inf."

Varios verbos de influencia siguen la estructura: verbo + objeto + to + infinitivo.

• I need her to make me a dress.
• She wants them to work hard.
• David asked her to buy him a drink.
• She told us to keep her secret.

Errores frecuentes:

• She wants they to work hard. → objeto debe ser pronombre objeto: them.
• told us we kept → imperativa indirecta usa to + inf., no that + subjuntivo.

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42. Both… con Pronombres: Posición de Both como Adverbio de Foco

Cuando both modifica el predicado (no un sustantivo), se coloca entre el auxiliar y el verbo principal.

• We have both been to Italy. (correcto: both entre have y been)
• Both we have been to Italy. (incorrecto)
• Both us have been to Italy. (incorrecto: us es objeto, no puede ser sujeto)